BivalTyp

Spanish

Contributed by Elena Gorbova (Academia.edu profile)

E.G.'s photo

Elena Gorbova provided the data in 2012. She used the Russian version of the questionnaire.

How to cite

Gorbova, Elena. 2022. Bivalent patterns in Spanish. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. St. Petersburg: Institute for Linguistic Studies, RAS. (Data first published on April 14, 2022; last revised on September 28, 2025.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info, Accessed on )

Basic info

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

Spanish generally displays the nominative-accusative alignment. The subject (A- or S- argument) is unflagged, while the direct object (P-argument) is usually indicated only by word order (SVO) in case of nouns (but see the “Differential object marking” section). However, pronominal arguments differentiate between subjects and direct objects. Besides, clauses with personal pronouns as direct objects normally display the SOV pattern. The person and number of the subject are indexed on the verb, depending on the combination of tense and aspect. Spanish is a pronounced pro-drop language.

Case system

Spanish has no morphological case on nouns. Personal pronouns (except for the polite pronouns Usted and Ustedes) have three case-like forms: subject form, direct object form, and indirect object form. Pronominal forms used with prepositions formally coincide with the subject form.

Differential object marking

Spanish has differential object marking that is realized by means of the preposition a before the direct object. Significantly simplifying the situation, the preposition a is used only with animate direct objects (that is why it is glossed as DIR.OBJ.ANM), as in (1). Importantly, the same preposition a is also used to signal indirect objects, as in (2).

(1)  Pedro     respet-a         a            María
     PN[SG.M]  respect-PRS.3SG  DIR.OBJ.ANM  PN[SG.F]
     ‘Pedro respects Maria.’

(2)  Pedro     se        parec-e           a         María
     PN[SG.M]  REFL.3SG  resemble-PRS.3SG  NDIR.OBJ  PN[SG.F]
     ‘Pedro resembles Maria.’

Copulae ser and estar

As most other languages of Iberia (Portuguese, Catalan, and others), Spanish features two copula verbs, viz. ser and estar. The verb ser is generally used to describe inherent, permanent, and habitual characteristics of a subject, while estar is used to encode temporary characteristics. These copulae can be contrasted, cf. (3) and (4):

(3)  Pedro  es               loc-o
     PN(M)  be_HAB.PRS.3SG   crazy-M
     ‘Pedro is crazy (in general).’

(4)  Pedro  está              loc-o
     PN(M)  be_PROG.PRS.3SG   crazy-M
     ‘Pedro is being/acting crazy.’

Verb lemmas

Verbs are shown in the infinitive form. For reflexive verbs, the citation form with the enclitical reflexive pronoun is used.

Glossing abbreviations

1, 3 — 1st, 3rd person; ANM — animate; ART — article; AOR — aorist; AUX — auxiliary; DEF — definite; DIR — direct; F — feminine; GER — gerund; HAB — habitual; IMP — imperative; IMPF — imperfect; INF — infinitive; M — masculine; NDEF — indefinite; NDIR — indirect; OBJ — object; PL — plural; PN — person name; PRF — perfect; PROG — progressive; PRS — present; PTCP — participle; REFL — reflexive; SG — singular.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern
Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain doler

Valency pattern: NDIR.OBJ_SBJ
X: NDIR.OBJ
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro le duel-e la cabeza
ndir . obj pn [ sg . m ] he. ndir . obj ache- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . f head[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro has a headache.’

2. have (illness) tener

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro tien-e la gripe
pn [ sg . m ] have- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . f flu[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro has a flu.’

3. be afraid temer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro tem-e a=l perro
pn [ sg . m ] fear- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm = art . def . sg . m dog[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw tirar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha tira-do una piedra
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg throw- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . f stone[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro threw a stone.’

5. have enough alcanzar

Valency pattern: NDIR.OBJ_SBJ
X: NDIR.OBJ
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro le alcanz-a el dinero
ndir . obj pn [ sg . m ] he. ndir . obj reach- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . m money[ sg . m ]
‘Now Pedro has enough money.’

6. resemble parecerse

Valency pattern: SBJ_NDIR.OBJ
X: SBJ
Y: NDIR.OBJ
Locus: Y
Pedro se parec-e a María
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg resemble- prs .3 sg ndir . obj pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro resembles Maria.’

7. believe creer

Valency pattern: SBJ_NDIR.OBJ
X: SBJ
Y: NDIR.OBJ
Locus: Y
Pedro cre-e a María
pn [ sg . m ] believe- prs .3 sg ndir . obj pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro believes Maria.’

8. take coger

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha cogi-do un libro de=l estante
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg take- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . m book[ sg . m ] from= art . def . sg . m shelf[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro took a book from the shelf.’

9. see ver

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ve una casa
pn [ sg . m ] see[ prs .3 sg ] art . ndef . sg . f house[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro sees a house.’

10. influence influir

Valency pattern: SBJ_en
X: SBJ
Y: en
Locus: Y
la edad influy-e en la memoria
art . def . sg . f age[ sg . f ] influence- prs .3 sg in art . def . sg . f memory[ sg . f ]
‘Age influences memory.’

11. encounter encontrarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro se ha encontra-do con María
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg aux . 3 sg encounter- ptcp : prf with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro encountered Maria.’

12. enter entrar

Valency pattern: SBJ_en
X: SBJ
Y: en
Locus: Y
Pedro ha entra-do en la casa
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg enter- ptcp : prf in art . def . sg . f house[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro entered the house.’

13. win ganar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha gana-do a María a=l ajedrez
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg win- ptcp : prf dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ] to= art . def . sg . m chess[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro won over Maria at chess.’

14. go out salir

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
Pedro sali-ó de casa
pn [ sg . m ] go_out- aor .3 sg from house[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro went out of the house.’

15. drive arrear

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro arre-a a la vaca a los pastos
pn [ sg . m ] drive- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm art . def . sg . f cow[ sg . f ] to art . def . m . pl pasture[ pl . m ]
‘Pedro is driving the cow to the pasture.’

16. bend encorvar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha encorva-do una rama
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg bend- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . f branch[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro bent the branch.’

17. tell decir

Valency pattern: SBJ_NDIR.OBJ
X: SBJ
Y: NDIR.OBJ
Locus: Y
Pedro ha dich-o a María: ven a ver-me
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg tell- ptcp : prf ndir . obj pn [ sg . f ] come. imp to see. inf - dir . obj .1 sg
‘Pedro told Maria: come to my place!’

18. hold tener

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro tien-e un libro en la-s mano-s
pn [ sg . m ] have- prs .3 sg art . ndef . sg . m book[ sg . m ] in art . def . f - pl hand[ sg . f ]- pl
‘Pedro is holding a book in his hands.’

19. catch up alcanzar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha alcanza-do a Maria
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg reach- ptcp : prf dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro caught up with Maria.’

20. milk ordeñar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ordeñ-ó la vaca
pn [ sg . m ] milk- aor .3 sg art . def . sg . f cow[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro milked the cow.’

21. reach alcanzar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro alcanz-ó la orilla
pn [ sg . m ] reach- aor .3 sg art . def . sg . f bank[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro reached the coast.’

22. touch tocar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro toc-ó la pared
pn [ sg . m ] touch- aor .3 sg art . def . sg . f wall[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro touched the wall.’

23. fight pegarse

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Pedro y Maria se están pega-ndo
pn [ sg . m ] and pn [ sg . f ] refl .3 pl be_ prog . prs .3 pl stick- ger : prog
‘Pedro is fighting with Maria.’
Note: Not included in the database because X and Y are expressed as a coordinate NP.

24. be friends ser amigo

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Pedro es amigo de María
pn [ sg . m ] be_ hab . prs .3 sg friend[ sg . m ] from pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is friends with Maria.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

25. think pensar

Valency pattern: SBJ_en
X: SBJ
Y: en
Locus: Y
Pedro está pensa-ndo en María
pn [ sg . m ] be_ prog . prs .3 sg think- ger : prog in pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is thinking about Maria.’

26. eat comerse

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro se ha comi-do una manzana
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg aux .3 sg eat- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . f apple[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro ate an apple.’

27. fry freír

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha frei-do pescado
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg fry- ptcp : prf fish[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro fried the fish.’

28. wait esperar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro esper-a a María
pn [ sg . m ] wait- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is waiting for Maria.’

29. forget olvidarse

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro se lo/le olvid-ó el otr-o camino
dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg he. dir . obj forget- aor .3 sg art . def . sg . m other- sg . m road[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro forgot about the other way.’

30. depend depender

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
la memoria depend-e de la edad
art . def . sg . f memory[ sg . f ] depend- prs .3 sg from art . def . sg . f age[ sg . f ]
‘Memory depends on age.’

31. call llamar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
entonces Pedro llam-ó a María
then pn [ sg . m ] call- aor .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro called Maria.’

32. get to know conocer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro conoci-ó a María hac-e un año
pn [ sg . m ] know- aor .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ] make- prs .3 sg art . ndef . sg . m year[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro got to know Maria a year ago.’

33. know conocer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro conoc-e a María
pn [ sg . m ] know- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro knows Maria.’

34. play (instrument) tocar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro toc-a la guitarra
pn [ sg . m ] touch- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . f guitar[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid evitar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro evit-a a María
pn [ sg . m ] avoid- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro avoids Maria.’

36. make fabricar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha fabrica-do una bomba
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg make- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . f bomb[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro made a bomb.’

37. make fun burlarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
Pedro se burl-a de María
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg make_fun- prs .3 sg from pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is making fun of Maria.’

38. have tener

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro tien-e coche
pn [ sg . m ] have- prs .3 sg car[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro has a car.’

39. look for buscar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro busc-a la-s llave-s
pn [ sg . m ] look_for- prs .3 sg art . def . f - pl key[ sg . f ]- pl
‘Pedro is looking for his keys.’

40. paint pintar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha pinta-do la valla
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg paint- ptcp : prf art . def . sg . f fence[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro painted the fence.’

41. bite morder

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
un perro mordi-ó a Pedro
art . ndef . sg . m dog[ sg . m ] bite- aor .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . m ]
‘A dog bit Pedro.’

42. forfeit perder

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha perdi-do su casa
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg lose- ptcp : prf one’s[ sg . f ] house[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro lost his house.’

43. try to catch tratar de coger

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro trat-a de coge-r a=l gato
pn [ sg . m ] try- prs .3 sg from grasp- inf dir . obj . anm = art . def . sg . m cat[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break romper

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha roto un palo
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg break. ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . m stick[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro broke the stick.’

45. flatter lisonjear

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro lisonje-a a María
pn [ sg . m ] flatter- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is flattering Maria.’

46. love (person) querer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro quier-e a María
pn [ sg . m ] love- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro loves Maria.’

47. wave agitar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro agit-a un pañuelo
pn [ sg . m ] wave- prs .3 sg art . ndef . sg . m handkerchief[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro is waving a handkerchief.’

48. dream soñar

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro sueñ-a con un coche nuev-o
pn [ sg . m ] dream- prs .3 sg with art . ndef . sg . m car[ sg . m ] new[ sg ]- m
‘Pedro is dreaming of a new car.’

49. wash lavar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha lava-do una taza
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg wash- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . f cup[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro washed the cup.’

50. put on ponerse

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro se ha pues-to un pantalón
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg aux .3 sg put- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . m trousers[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro put on his trousers.’

51. be called llamarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_BARE
X: SBJ
Y: BARE
Locus: Y
est-e instrumento se llam-a brújula
this- m instrument[ sg . m ] refl .3 sg call- prs .3 sg compass[ sg . f ]
‘This instrument is called a compass.’

52. punish castigar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha castiga-do a su hijo
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg punish- ptcp : prf dir . obj . anm one’s[ sg ] son[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro punished his son.’

53. attack atacar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
un oso atac-ó a=l pescador
art . ndef . sg . m bear[ sg . m ] attack- aor .3 sg dir . obj . anm = art . def . sg . m fisherman[ sg . m ]
‘A bear attacked the fisherman.’

54. fill (intr) llenarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
el cubo se llen-ó de agua
art . def . sg . m bucket[ sg . m ] refl .3 sg fill- aor .3 sg from water[ sg . f ]
‘The bucket filled up with water.’

55. find encontrar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha encontra-do la-s llave-s
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg find- ptcp : prf art . def . sg . f - pl key[ sg . f ]- pl
‘Pedro found the keys.’

56. be short faltar

Valency pattern: NDIR.OBJ_SBJ
X: NDIR.OBJ
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro le falt-a dólar
ndir . obj pn [ sg . m ] he. ndir . obj lack- prs .3 sg dollar[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro is one dollar short.’

57. hate odiar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro odi-a a María
pn [ sg . m ] hate- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro hates Maria.’

58. like gustar

Valency pattern: NDIR.OBJ_SBJ
X: NDIR.OBJ
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro le gust-a est-a camisa
ndir . obj pn [ sg . m ] he. ndir . obj like- prs .3 sg this- f shirt[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro likes this shirt.’

59. need necesitar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro necesit-a dinero
pn [ sg . m ] need- prs .3 sg money[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro needs money.’

60. surround rodear

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
la-s muralla-s rode-an la ciudad
art . def . sg . f - pl wall[ sg . f ]- pl surround- prs .3 pl art . def . sg . f city[ sg . f ]
‘The walls surround the city.’

61. remain quedar

Valency pattern: NDIR.OBJ_SBJ
X: NDIR.OBJ
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro le ha-n queda-do diez dólar-es
ndir . obj pn [ sg . m ] he. ndir . obj aux .3- pl remain- ptcp : prf ten dollar[ sg . m ]- pl
‘Pedro has ten dollars left.’

62. answer contestar

Valency pattern: SBJ_NDIR.OBJ
X: SBJ
Y: NDIR.OBJ
Locus: Y
Pedro contest-ó a=l profesor
pn [ sg . m ] answer- aor .3 sg ndir . obj = art . def . sg . m teacher[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro answered the teacher.’

63. open abrir

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha abier-to una lata
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg open- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . f can[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro opened the can.’

64. be different ser diferente

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
mi camisa es diferente de la tuy-a
my[ sg . f ] shirt[ sg . f ] be_ hab . prs .3 sg different[ sg . f ] from art . def . sg . f your- sg . f
‘My shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind quedarse atrás

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
Pedro se qued-ó atrás de María
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg remain- aor .3 sg behind from pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro fell behind Maria.’

66. plough arar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ar-a el campo
pn [ sg . m ] plough- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . m field[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro is ploughing the field.’

67. smell oler

Valency pattern: SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
mi-s mano-s huele-n a gasolina
my- pl hand[ sg . f ]- pl smell- prs .3 pl to gasoline[ sg . f ]
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’

68. cross cruzar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro cruz-ó la calle
pn [ sg . m ] cross- aor .3 sg art . def . sg . f street[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro crossed the street.’

69. sing cantar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro cant-ó una canción muy bonit-a
pn [ sg ] sing- aor .3 sg art . ndef . sg . f song[ sg . f ] very beautiful[ sg ]- f
‘Pedro sang a very beautiful song.’

70. write escribir

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro escribi-ó una carta
pn [ sg ] write- aor .3 sg art . ndef . sg . f letter[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro wrote a letter.’

71. drink tomarse

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro se ha toma-do la leche
pn [ sg ] refl .3 sg aux .3 sg take- ptcp : prf art . def . sg . f milk[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro drank the milk.’

72. melt fundir

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro fundi-ó un trozo de plomo
pn [ sg ] melt- aor .3 sg art . ndef . sg . m piece[ sg . m ] from lead[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro melted a piece of lead.’

73. match quedar

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
est-e cinturón qued-a bien con mi vestido
this- sg . m belt[ sg . m ] remain- prs .3 sg well with my[ sg . m ] dress[ sg . m ]
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’

74. leave abandonar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha abandona-do su ciudad natal
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg leave- ptcp : prf one’s[ sg . f ] town[ sg . f ] native[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro left his native city.’

75. cover cubrir

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
la alfombra cubr-e tod-o el suelo
art . def . sg . f carpet[ sg . f ] cover- prs .3 sg all- sg . m art . def . sg . m floor[ sg . m ]
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’

76. remember recordar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro recuerd-a muy bien la casa en que se cri-ó
pn [ sg . m ] remember- prs .3 sg very well art . def . sg . f house[ sg . f ] in which[ sg . f ] refl .3 sg grow- aor .3 sg
‘Pedro remembers the house where he grew up well.’

77. help ayudar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ayud-ó a María
pn [ sg . m ] help- aor .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro helped Maria.’

78. understand (language) entender

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro entiend-e el francés
pn [ sg . m ] understand- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . m f rench[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro understands French.’

79. hit (target) caer

Valency pattern: SBJ_en
X: SBJ
Y: en
Locus: Y
el rayo cay-ó en una casa
art . def . sg . m lightning[ sg . m ] fall- aor .3 sg in art . ndef . sg . f house[ sg . f ]
‘The lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself cortarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro se ha corta-do con una navaja
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg aux .3 sg cut- ptcp : prf with art . ndef . sg . f razor[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro cut himself with the razor.’

81. get stuck pegarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
el vaso se ha pega-do a la mesa
art . def . sg . m glass[ sg . m ] refl .3 sg aux .3 sg stick- ptcp : prf to art . def . sg . f table[ sg . f ]
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) perder

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Pedro ha perdi-do una partida de ajedrez con María
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg lose- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . f game[ sg . f ] from chess[ sg . m ] with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro lost a game of chess with Maria.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

83. be glad alegrarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
Pedro se alegr-ó de la carta
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg rejoice- aor .3 sg from art . def . sg . f letter[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro was glad about the letter.’

84. speak hablar

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro habla-ba con María
pn [ sg . m ] speak- impf .3 sg with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro was talking to Maria.’

85. give birth tener

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
María ha teni-do un hijo
pn [ sg . f ] aux .3 sg have- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . m son[ sg . m ]
‘Maria gave birth to a son.’

86. drop dejar caer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro dej-ó caer un vaso
pn [ sg . m ] allow- aor .3 sg fall[ inf ] art . ndef . sg . m glass[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro dropped a glass.’

87. govern gobernar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro gobiern-a nuestr-o pueblo
pn [ sg . m ] govern- prs .3 sg our- sg . m village[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro runs our town.’

88. miss echar de menos

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ech-a de menos a María
pn [ sg . m ] throw- prs .3 sg from less dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro misses Maria.’

89. follow seguir

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro sigu-e a María
pn [ sg . m ] follow- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro follows Maria.’

90. dismount apearse

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
Pedro se ape-ó de=l caballo
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg dismount- aor .3 sg from= art . def . sg . m horse[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro got down from the horse.’

91. listen escuchar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro escuch-a la radio
pn [ sg . m ] listen- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . f radio[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is listening to the radio.’

92. obey obedecer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro obedec-e a la madre
pn [ sg . m ] obey- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm art . def . sg . f mother[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro obeys his mother.’

93. hear oír

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro oy-e la música
pn [ sg . m ] hear- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . f music[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro hears the music.’

94. mix mezclarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
la miel se ha mezcla-do con la leche
art . def . sg . f honey[ sg . f ] refl .3 sg aux .3 sg mix- ptcp : prf with art . def . sg . f milk[ sg . f ]
‘The honey got mixed with the milk.’

95. look mirar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro mir-a la-s nube-s
pn [ sg . m ] look- prs .3 sg art . def . f - pl cloud[ sg . f ]- pl
‘Pedro is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off quitarse

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro se ha quita-do la camisa
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg aux .3 sg put_off- ptcp : prf art . def . sg . f shirt[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro took off his shirt.’

97. dream (sleeping) soñar

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro sueñ-a con María
pn [ sg . m ] dream- prs .3 sg with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is dreaming about Maria.’

98. agree ponerse de acuerdo

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro se pus-o de acuerdo con María
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg put- aor .3 sg from agreement[ sg . m ] with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro agreed with Maria.’

99. have a quarrel reñir

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro riñ-ó con María
pn [ sg . m ] quarrel- aor .3 sg with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro had a quarrel with Maria.’

100. cost costar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
est-a taza cuest-a un dólar
this- sg . f cup[ sg . f ] cost- prs .3 sg art . ndef . sg . m dollar[ sg . m ]
‘This cup costs one dollar.’

101. shoot at disparar

Valency pattern: SBJ_contra
X: SBJ
Y: contra
Locus: Y
Pedro dispar-ó contra un pájaro
pn [ sg . m ] shoot- aor .3 sg against art . ndef . sg . m bird[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro shot at a bird.’

102. pour echar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ech-ó azúcar a la taza
pn [ sg . m ] throw- aor .3 sg sugar[ sg . m ] to art . def . sg . f cup[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro poured some sugar into the cup.’

103. lose perder

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha perdi-do la-s llave-s
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg lose- ptcp : prf art . def . f - pl key[ sg . f ]- pl
‘Pedro lost the keys.’

104. sink hundirse

Valency pattern: SBJ_en
X: SBJ
Y: en
Locus: Y
el leño se hundi-ó en el agua
art . def . sg . m log[ sg . m ] refl .3 sg sink- aor .3 sg in art . def . sg . f water[ sg . f ]
‘The log sank in the water.’

105. kill matar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha mata-do a María
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg kill- ptcp : prf dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro killed Maria.’

106. hit dar un golpe

Valency pattern: SBJ_NDIR.OBJ
X: SBJ
Y: NDIR.OBJ
Locus: Y
Pedro ha da-do un golpe a María
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg give- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . m strike[ sg . m ] ndir . obj pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro hit Maria.’

107. kiss dar un beso

Valency pattern: SBJ_NDIR.OBJ
X: SBJ
Y: NDIR.OBJ
Locus: Y
Pedro ha da-do un beso a María
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg give- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . m kiss[ sg . m ] ndir . obj pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro kissed Maria.’

108. read leer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro ha leí-do un libro interesante
pn [ sg . m ] aux .3 sg read- ptcp : prf art . ndef . sg . m book[ sg . m ] interesting[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) mover

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro movi-ó un dedo
pn [ sg . m ] move- aor .3 sg art . ndef . sg . m finger[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro moved a finger.’

110. respect respetar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro respet-a a María
pn [ sg . m ] respect- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro respects Maria.’

111. be squeamish repugnar

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro lo/le repugn-an lo-s plato-s suci-o-s
dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . m ] he. dir . obj . anm nauseate- prs .3 pl art . def . m - pl dish[ m ]- pl dirty- m - pl
‘Pedro is squeamish about dirty dishes.’

112. be content estar contento

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro está content-o con su hijo
pn [ sg . m ] be_ prog . prs .3 sg content- sg . m with one’s[ sg . m ] son[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro is content with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love enamorarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
Pedro se enamor-ó de María
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg fall_in_love- aor .3 sg from pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro fell in love with Maria.’

114. trust confiar

Valency pattern: SBJ_en
X: SBJ
Y: en
Locus: Y
Pedro confí-a en María
pn [ sg . m ] trust- prs .3 sg in pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro trusts Maria.’

115. sympathise compadecer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro compadec-e a su madre
pn [ sg . m ] sympathise- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm one’s[ sg . f ] mother[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro sympathises with his mother.’

116. envy envidiar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro envidi-a a María
pn [ sg . m ] envy- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro envies Maria.’

117. be angry estar furioso

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro está furios-o con María
pn [ sg . m ] be_ prog . prs .3 sg angry[ sg ]- m with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is angry with Maria.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

118. be surprised sorprender

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro lo/le ha sorprendi-do el regalo
dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . m ] he. dir . obj . anm aux .3 sg surprise- ptcp : prf art . def . sg . m gift[ sg . m ]
‘This gift surprised Pedro.’
Note:

119. love (tea) gustar

Valency pattern: NDIR.OBJ_SBJ
X: NDIR.OBJ
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro le gust-a el té
ndir . obj pn [ sg . m ] he. ndir . obj like- prs .3 sg art . def . sg . m tea[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro loves tea.’

120. enjoy disfrutar

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
Pedro disfrut-a de=l té caliente
pn [ sg . m ] enjoy- prs .3 sg from= art . def . sg . m tea[ sg . m ] hot[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro enjoys hot tea.’

121. want querer

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro quier-e un teléfono movil nuev-o
pn [ sg . m ] want- prs .3 sg art . ndef . sg . m telephone[ sg . m ] mobile[ sg . m ] new[ sg ]- m
‘Pedro wants a new mobile phone.’

122. have a grudge enfadarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro se enfad-a con María
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg make_angry- prs .3 sg with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro has a grudge against Maria.’

123. take offence disgustar

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro está disgusta-do con María
pn [ sg . m ] be_ prog . prs .3 sg irritate- ptcp . sg . m with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro took offence at Maria.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (passive).

124. upset afligir

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro afligi-ó mucho a María
pn [ sg . m ] upset- aor .3 sg very dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro greatly upset Maria.’

125. marvel sorprender

Valency pattern: DO_SBJ
X: DO
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a Pedro lo/le sorprendi-ó est-a ciudad
dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . m ] he. dir . obj . anm surprise- aor .3 sg this[ sg ]- f town[ sg . f ]
‘This city surprised Pedro.’

126. despise despreciar

Valency pattern: TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Pedro despreci-a a María
pn [ sg . m ] despise- prs .3 sg dir . obj . anm pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro despises Maria.’

127. get upset afligirse

Valency pattern: SBJ_por.culpa.de
X: SBJ
Y: por.culpa.de
Locus: Y
Pedro se afligi-ó por culpa de su hijo
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg upset- aor .3 sg for fault[ sg . f ] from one’s[ sg . m ] son[ sg . m ]
‘Pedro got upset because of his son.’

128. get irritated irritarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro se irrit-a con su hija
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg irritate- prs .3 sg with one’s[ sg . f ] daughter[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is getting irritated with his son.’

129. be fond simpatizar

Valency pattern: SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Pedro simpatiz-a con María
pn [ sg . m ] be_fond- prs .3 sg with pn [ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is fond of Maria.’

130. be shy avergonzarse

Valency pattern: SBJ_de
X: SBJ
Y: de
Locus: Y
Pedro se avergüenz-a de su estatura
pn [ sg . m ] refl .3 sg shame- prs .3 sg from one’s[ sg . f ] height[ sg . f ]
‘Pedro is shy about his height.’