Khwarshi

Contributed by Irene Gorbunova (Academia.edu profile) and Yurij Chernov (Academia.edu profile).

I.G.'s photo Yu.Ch.'s photo

The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation.

How to cite

Gorbunova, Irene & Yurij Chernov. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Khwarshi. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on September 15, 2023; last revised on December 28, 2023.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info, Accessed on )

Basic info

Coordinates: 42.27, 46.0.
Genealogy (as given in WALS). Family: Nakh-Daghestanian, genus: Avar-Andic-Tsezic.
Macro-area: West Asia and the Caucasus.

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

In Khwarshi, both case marking and argument indexing on the verb display the ergative-absolutive alignment. In the basic transitive construction, the A-argument is in the ergative case, and the P-argument, in the (unmarked) absolutive case. The P-argument also controls the agreement with the verb. The ergative form of nouns coincides with the oblique stem found in other cases. It is mostly marked with suffixes, but there are also instances when the ergative differs from the absolutive only in stress pattern. The stress is not shown graphically in the examples below, however, this particular suprasegmental pattern is marked as \ERG in the gloss. The neutral word order is S(O)V. An example of the transitive construction can be found in (1).

(1)  šamil-i  l-ica-χ-χa           k'ant'a
     PN-ERG   IV-break-CAUS-PST.W  stick(IV)
     ‘Shamil broke a stick.’

Non-core arguments are flagged by oblique case markers or, rarely, by postpositions (in combination with one of the two genitives or one of the locative cases).

Case system

There are 6 non-locative cases: absolutive, ergative, dative, two genitives and causal. The choice between the genitives depends on the syntactic head: the first genitive (GEN1) is used with an absolutive nominal head, whilst the second genitive (GEN2) is used with oblique heads and postpositions. Verbs rarely take a noun in the genitive case as an argument. There are four more non-locative cases (namely, similative, comitative, vocative and temporal), but their position in the overall case system is disputable, since the first two seem to be marked by clitics and are apparently compatible with other cases, and the later two are not productive forms with case functions. The system of locative cases consists of two layers: 6 localizations (IN ‘inside (a container)’, INTER ‘between, in a substance’, SUB ‘under’, AD ‘at, near’, SUPER ‘on the horizontal surface or above it’ and CONT ‘on the vertical surface, in contact with’) and 6 directionals (the unmarked essive, lative, elative, directive, terminative and translative), which yields 36 combinations. Locative cases have extended non-locative functions.

Verb lemmas

Verbs are cited by the infinitive form with second class agreement marker in form of j/ if the verb has a slot for it. For example ‘to break’ is cited as j/icaχa, whereas the corresponding form in (1) has a different class marker and is in past witnessed form, yielding licaχχa.

Glossing abbreviations

I, II, III, IV, V — 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th class; NONI — any class except I; ABS — absolutive; AD — localization ‘at, near’; ADD — additive particle; AN — anaphoric; ATR — attributive; AUX — auxiliary; CAUS — causative; COM — comitative; CONT — localization ‘on the vertical surface, in contact with’; CVB — converb; DAT — dative; DEM — demonstrative; DIR — directive; EL — elative; ERG — ergative; GEN — genitive; GNT — general tense; HPL — human plural; IMP — imperative; IN — localization ‘inside (a container)’; INF — infinitive; INTER — localization ‘between, in a substance’; ITS — intensifier; LAT — lative; NEG — negation; NHPL — non-human plural; O — oblique stem; PL — plural; PN — person name; POT — potential; PROX — proximal; PRS — present; PST — past; QUOT — quotative; SG — singular; SUB — localization ‘under’ ; SUPER — localization ‘on the horizontal surface or above it’; TRANS — translative; U — unwitnessed; VBLZ — verbalizer; W — witnessed.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern

Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain j/eƛa

Valency pattern: GEN1_ABS

X: GEN1

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-ja	b-eƛ-ƛo	lola
1 sg . o - gen 1	iii -hurt- prs	foot( iii )
‘My foot hurts.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

2. have (illness) j/eƛa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT

X: ABS

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

di-ja	q'ale	l-eƛ-ƛo	wetrjanka-qо
1 sg . o - gen 1	children	hpl -be.ill- prs	chicken.pox- cont
‘My children have chicken-pox.’

3. be afraid j/uƛ’a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT

X: ABS

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

di-ja	uža	u:ƛ'a	ʁʷe-qo
1 sg . o - gen 1	son( i )	[ i ]be.afraid\ gnt	dog( iii )- cont
‘My son is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw coƛa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

di-lo	uža	ʁur	cojƛa
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	stone( v )	throw\ pst . w
‘My son threw a stone.’

5. have enough muwa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-l	žu	os	muwa-ha
1 sg . o - dat	dem . an . abs . prox	money( iii )	be.enough- prs
‘I have enough money.’

6. resemble ajłа gołe

Valency pattern: ABS_AD

X: ABS

Y: AD

Locus: Y

di-ja	uža	di-lo	juq'uči-ho	ajłа	gołe
1 sg . o - gen 1	son( i )	1 sg . o - gen 2	old.woman( ii )- ad	[ i ]similar	be. prs
‘My son resembles my grandma.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

7. believe buža

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER

X: ABS

Y: SUPER

Locus: Y

šamil	buža-ha	isu-lo	ʁina-ƛ'о
pn	believe- prs	dem . an . o . i - gen 2	woman( ii )- super
‘Shamil believes his wife.’

8. take j/aha

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	b-ajsa	hĩše	ƛen-ƛ'o-žo
pn - erg	iii -take\ pst . w	book( iii )	shelf( iv )- super - el
‘Shamil took a book from the shelf.’

9. see j/akʷa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamile-l	l-akʷa-ha	aq
pn - dat	iv -see- prs	house( iv )
‘Shamil sees a house.’

10. influence j/ihaχa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

iłi	daru-za	pahmu	b-ih-o:χa
dem . an . o . noni	medicine( iii )- pl . erg	memory	( iii ) iii -die- caus . gnt
Lit. ‘This medicine kills memory.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

11. encounter j/ukkaja

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamile-l	dandi	ukkaj-ja	di-ja	es
pn - dat	against	encounter- pst . w	1 sg . o - gen 1	brother( i )
‘Shamil encountered my brother.’

12. enter j/eqʷa

Valency pattern: ABS_IN.DIR

X: ABS

Y: IN.DIR

Locus: Y

šamil	eq-qa	idu-ʁol
pn	enter- pst . w	house. in - dir
‘Shamil entered the house.’

13. win j/iža

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL

X: ABS

Y: SUPER.EL

Locus: Y

šamil	iž-ža	hamaʁe-ƛ'o-žo	šaχmat-ba=n	ħajda-na
pn ( i )	[ i ]win- pst . w	friend( i )- super - el	ches- pl . abs = add	play- cvb
‘Shamil beat his friend at chess.’

14. go out j/eqʷa

Valency pattern: ABS_IN.EL

X: ABS

Y: IN.EL

Locus: Y

šamil	eq-qa	idu-žo	ma-ʁol
pn ( i )	[ i ]go.out- pst . w	house. in - el	outside- dir
‘Shamil went out of the house.’

15. drive j/ec'a

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	zihi	b-ec'-c'o	hun-ƛ'o-ʁol	kuk-a
pn - erg	cow( iii )	iii -drive- prs	mountain( v )- super - dir	eat- inf
‘Shamil is driving the cow to graze on the mountain.’

16. bend j/uk'aχa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

di-lo	uža	l-uk’a-χ-χa	ala
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	iv -bend- caus - pst . w	branch( iv )
‘Shamil bent the branch.’

17. tell iƛa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT.LAT

X: ERG

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: Y

šamil-i	di-qo-l	iƛ-ƛa	žan	nišo	horo=ƛƛa
pn - erg	1 sg . o - cont - lat	say- pst . w	more	evening	come. imp = quot
‘Shamil told me: “Come again tonight”.’

18. hold j/aqaχa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

di-lo	uža	b-aqaχ-χo	hĩše
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	iii -hold- prs	book( iii )
‘My son is holding a book.’

19. catch up žoho j/eta

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN2

X: ABS

Y: GEN2

Locus: Y

šamil	žoho	ejta	tušman-lo
pn ( i )	behind	[ i ]catch.up\ pst . w	enemy( i )- gen 2
‘Shamil caught up with the enemy.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

20. milk t'it'a

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	t’it’-t’a	zihi
pn - erg	milk- pst . w	cow( iii )
‘Shamil milked the cow.’

21. reach j/at'a

Valency pattern: ABS_AD.LAT

X: ABS

Y: AD.LAT

Locus: Y

iłi-lo	bala-ha-l	at'ek'-k'a	šamil
dem . an . o . noni - gen 2	bank( iii )- ad - lat	[ i ]reach- pst . w	pn ( i )
‘Shamil reached its (the river’s) bank.’

22. touch j/etaχa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT

X: ERG

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

šamil-i	qado-qo	gud	j-etaχ-χa
pn - erg	wall( v )- cont	shirt( v )	( v )-touch- pst . w
‘Shamil got his shirt against the wall.’

23. fight j/eheja

Valency pattern: ABS_COM

X: ABS

Y: COM

Locus: Y

šamil	ehe-he	tušmale=ge
pn ( i )	[ i ]fight- prs	enemy. o = com
‘Shamil is fighting with an enemy.’

24. be friends halmaʁłi l-uwa

Valency pattern: ERG_INTER

X: ERG

Y: INTER

Locus: Y

šamil-i	muχamade-ł	halmaʁłi	l-u-ho	gołe
pn - erg	pn - inter	friendship( iv )	iv -make- prs	aux . prs
‘Shamil is making friends with Muhammad again.’

25. think urʁida

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER

X: ABS

Y: SUPER

Locus: Y

šamil	urʁida-ha	ʁina-ƛ'o
pn	think- prs	wife- super
‘Shamil is thinking about his wife.’

26. eat j/ac'a

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

obut'-i	b-ajc'а	čuʕа
father. o - erg	iii -eat\ pst . w	fish( iii )
‘Father ate the fish.’

27. fry išana

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

išat'-i	išajna	čuʕa
mother. o - erg	fry\ pst . w	fish( iii )
‘Mother fried the fish.’

28. wait gic'a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT

X: ABS

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: Y

da	hoboža	hamaʁe-qo-l=na	gic'a-na	gołe
1 sg . abs	now	friend- cont - lat = add	wait- pst . u	aux . prs
‘I am now waiting for a friend.’

29. forget šuƛ'a

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

ilu-l	bit'ura-l	huni	šuƛ'a-na
1 pl - dat	correct- iv	road( iv )	forget- pst . u
‘We forgot the right way.’

30. depend gic'a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT

X: ABS

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: Y

ʕaq'u	zamana-qo-l	gic'a-na	b-e:ča
mind( iii )	time( iii )- cont - lat	look- pst . u	iii -be\ gnt
‘One’s mind depends on one’s age.’

31. call goƛ'a

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

de	gojƛ'a	hamaʁe
1 sg . erg	call\ pst . w	friend
‘I called a friend.’

32. get to know halmaʁłi l-uwa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

šamil-i	patimate-ł	halmaʁłi	l-u-na
pn - erg	pn - inter	friendship( iv )	iv -make- pst . u
‘Shamil made friends with Fatima.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

33. know j/iq'a

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamile-l	c'aq'	k'ʷet'	j-iq'e-he	fatima
pn - dat	very	well	ii -know- prs	pn
‘Shamil knows Fatima very well.’

34. play (instrument) qʷaja

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

di-lo	uža	qʷaja-ha	gitara
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	play- prs	guitar
‘My son is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid j/iča

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.EL

X: ABS

Y: CONT.EL

Locus: Y

fatima	j-ič-ha	šamil-qo-žo
pn	ii -run.away- prs	pn - cont - el
‘Fatima avoids Shamil.’

36. make j/uƛeχ

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

di-lo	uža	ustur	l-uƛe-χ-χa
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	table( iv )	iv -make- caus - pst . w
‘My son made a table.’

37. make fun łasa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER

X: ABS

Y: SUPER

Locus: Y

učitel	łas-so	c'aldoq'an-ƛ'o
teacher	make.fun- prs	pupil- super
‘The teacher is making fun of the pupil.’

38. have gołe

Valency pattern: GEN1_ABS

X: GEN1

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamile-s	gołe	mašina
pn - gen 1	be. prs	car
‘Shamil has a car.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

39. look for k'ʷeja

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	k'ʷe-ho	leka-ba
pn - erg	look.for- prs	key( iii )- pl . abs
‘Shamil is looking for his keys.’

40. paint j/eχa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT

X: ERG

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

di-lo	uža	qado-qo	(tošu)	l-eχe-na
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	wall( v )- cont	porridge( iv )	iv -smear- pst . u
‘My son smeared porridge on the wall.’

41. bite hana

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN1

X: ERG

Y: GEN1

Locus: Y

ʁʷa-ji	hajna	šamil-es
dog( iii )- erg	bite\ pst . w	pn - gen 1
‘A dog bit Shamil.’

42. forfeit bataɫa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.EL

X: ABS

Y: CONT.EL

Locus: Y

šamil	batała-ja	aq-qo-žo
pn	part- pst . w	house( iv )- cont - el
‘Shamil lost his house.’

43. try to catch aqaχa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	b-aqaχ-χo	k'it'u
pn - erg	iii -catch- prs	cat( iii )
‘Shamil is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break j/icaχa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	l-ica-χ-χa	k'ant'a
pn - erg	iv -break- caus - pst . w	stick( iv )
‘Shamil broke a stick.’

45. flatter ragłal l-uwa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

rasul-i	ħakime-l	ragłal	l-uj-ja
pn - erg	boss( i )- dat	good( iv )	iv -make- pst . w
‘Rasul has placated his boss.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

46. love (person) goqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamile-l	goqa-ha	is-a	ʁini
pn - dat	love- prs	dem . an . o . i - gen 1	wife
‘Shamil loves his wife.’

47. wave šʷana

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

žik'ʷa	miq'e-žo	q'emq'osa	šʷana-ha	gołe
man\ erg	far- el	shawl( iv )	wave- prs	aux . prs
‘A man is waving a shawl from a far.’

48. dream j/iha

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

di-ja	uža	mašina-ƛ'o-žo	iha-ha	gołe
1 sg . o - gen 1	son( i )	car- super - el	[ i ]die- prs	aux . prs
‘My son desperately wants a car’, lit. ‘My son is dying about the car.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

49. wash esana

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

di-lo	uža	isu-lo-č	žoho	esajna	k'ot'e
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	dem . an . o . i - gen 2- its	after	wash\ pst . w	plate( iii )
‘My son washed his plate after himself.’

50. put on šiƛ'a

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	šiƛ'-ƛ'a	ʁeƛo
pn - erg	put.on- pst . w	trousers( v )
‘Shamil put on his trousers.’

51. be called ca gołe

Valency pattern: SUPER_ABS

X: SUPER

Y: ABS

Locus: X

a-r-łi	gange-ƛ'o	ca	gołe	šalfej
prox - iv - dem . o . noni	flower( iv )- super	name( iv )	be. prs	sage
‘This flower is called sage.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

52. punish j/ajƛ'a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT

X: ABS

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: Y

obu	ajƛ-ƛa	uža-qo-l
father( i )	[ i ]scorch- pst . w	son( i )- cont - lat
‘Father scorched his son.’

53. attack k'oƛa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER

X: ABS

Y: SUPER

Locus: Y

boc'-ba	k'ojƛa	iho-ƛ'o
wolf( iii )- pl . abs	attack\ pst . w	shepherd( i )- super
‘Wolves attacked the shepherd.’

54. fill (intr) j/ec'a

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN1

X: ABS

Y: GEN1

Locus: Y

wedra	l-ejc'a	łi-s
bucket( iv )	iv -fill\ pst . w	water( iv )- gen 1
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find j/isa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

maduʁale-l	l-is-sa	leka-ba
neighbor- dat	nhpl -be.found- pst . w	key( iii )- pl . abs
‘Shamil found his keys.’

56. be short j/uwa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-l	j-uw-aj	q'uni	ʁuruš
1 sg . o - dat	v -be.enough- neg . pst . w	two	rouble( v )
‘I am two roubles short.’

57. hate j/aca

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamile-l	aca-na	maduʁal
pn ( i )- dat	[ i ]hate- pst . u	neighbor( i )
‘Shamil hates his neighbor.’

58. like goqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

isu-l	goqa-ha	deba	gud
dem . an . o . i - dat	like- prs	2 sg . o . gen 1	shirt( v )
‘He likes your shirt.’

59. need q'uča

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

maduʁale-l	os	q'uča-na
neighbor- dat	money	( iii ) want- pst . u
‘The neighbor needs money.’

60. surround giłеl j/uƛa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šed-za	muk'o	giłе-l	b-uƛ-o:χa
wall- pl . erg	place( iii )	inside- lat	iii -whirl- caus . gnt
‘Walls surround the city.’

61. remain ƛiχa

Valency pattern: CONT_ABS

X: CONT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-qo	ƛiχ-χa	q'uni	ʁuruš
1 sg . o - cont	remain- pst . w	two	rouble( v )
‘I have two roubles left.’

62. answer žawab tiƛa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

di-lo	uža	učitele-l	žawab	tiƛ-na
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	teacher- dat	answer( iii )	give- pst . u
‘My son answered the teacher.’

63. open j/ãʁa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	j-ãʁ-ʁa	banka
pn - erg	v -open- pst . w	can( v )
‘Shamil is opening a can.’

64. be different bat'ija/j j/e:ča

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.EL

X: ABS

Y: CONT.EL

Locus: Y

kʷeč’abe-sa	leƛ'a	kʷet'abe-qo-žo	bat'ija-r	l-e:ča
left- atr	hand( iv )	right- cont - el	different- iv	iv -be\ gnt
‘The left hand is different the right one.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind žohol ƛiχa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL

X: ABS

Y: SUPER.EL

Locus: Y

šamil	ƛiχ-χa	hamaʁe-za-ƛ'o-žo	žohol
pn	remain- pst . w	friend- pl . o - super - el	behind
‘Shamil fell behind his friends.’

66. plough laƛa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

obut'-i	laƛe-he	ʁudu
father. o - erg	plough- prs	field( iv )
‘Father is ploughing the field.’

67. smell muša gołe

Valency pattern: INTER.EL_GEN1

X: INTER.EL

Y: GEN1

Locus: XY

di-lo	leła-za-š-šo	lija-s	muša	gołe
1 sg . o - gen 2	hand( iv )- pl . o - inter - el	garlic( iv )- gen 1	smell( iii )	be. prs
‘My hands smell of garlic.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

68. cross j/iƛ'a

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

šamil	iƛ'-ƛ'a	huni-ƛ'o	igo-jža-ʁol
pn ( i )	[ i ]go- pst . w	road( iv )- super	there- trans - dir
‘Shamil went across the road to the other side.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

69. sing j/eza

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

išat'-i	b-ejza	bertina-b	keč’i
mother. o - erg	iii -sing\ pst . w	beautiful- iii	song( iii )
‘Mother sang a beautiful song.’

70. write qʷaja

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	q'ʷaj-ja	q'aʁat
pn - erg	write- pst . w	letter( iii )
‘Shamil wrote a letter.’

71. drink χiƛa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	χiƛ-ƛa	ʁi
pn - erg	drink- pst . w	milk( v )
‘Shamil drank the milk.’

72. melt j/ẽca

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

de	j-enca-χ-χa	šitomihi
1 sg . erg	v -melt- caus - pst . w	spoon( v )
‘I melted a spoon.’

73. match raga

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER

X: ABS

Y: SUPER

Locus: Y

di-ja	q'emqosa	ro:k'a	kunta-ƛ'o
1 sg . o - gen 1	shawl( iv )	match\ gnt	dress( v )- super
‘This shawl goes well with the dress.’

74. leave hoca

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

di-lo	hamaʁe	hojca	aƛ
1 sg . o - gen 2	friend	leave\ pst . w	village( iii )
‘My friend left the village.’
Note: Although the word for ‘friend’ has no explicit case markers, it is in the ergative, as visible from the GEN2 possessor.

75. cover cucχa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

dajhan-i	cuco:χa	q'el
carpet- erg	cover\ gnt	floor( iv )
‘The carpet covers the floor.’

76. remember liqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-l	k'ʷet'	li:qe	aq
1 sg - dat	well	remember\ gnt	house( iv )
‘I remember the house well.’

77. help j/uwa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT

X: ERG

Y: DAT

Locus: Y

učitel-i	kumak	b-uj-ja	c'aldoq'ane-l
teacher- erg	help( iii )	iii -make- pst . w	pupil- dat
‘The teacher helped the pupil.’

78. understand (language) bič'ida

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-l	dahab	bič’i:da	aƛ'ilzis	mec
1 sg . o - dat	small	understand\ gnt	k hwarshi	language( iii )
‘I understand Khwarshi a bit.’

79. hit (target) c'oχa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER

X: ABS

Y: SUPER

Locus: Y

piri	c'oχ-χa	aq-ƛ'o
lightning( iv )	get- pst . w	house( iv )- super
‘Lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself j/ič'a

Valency pattern: GEN1_ERG

X: GEN1

Y: ERG

Locus: X

di-ja	l-ič-ča	t'iq-a
1 sg - gen 1	iv -cut- pst . w	knife( iv )- erg
‘I cut myself with a knife.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument. It is not entirely clear what triggers agreement here. Probably, some unnamed body-part, such as ‘hand’ or ‘palm’ (both from the IV class).

81. get stuck ɫeʁa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT

X: ABS

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: Y

istakan	łeʁ-ʁa	ustur-qo-l
glass( v )	stick- pst . w	table( iii )- cont - lat
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) j/iʁʷa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT

X: ABS

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

da	šamil-qo	šaχmate-za-l	iʁ-ʁa
1 sg . abs	pn - cont	chess- pl . o - dat	[ i ]lose- pst . w
‘I lost to Shamil at chess.’

83. be glad ʁeʁu j/aha

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.TRANS

X: ABS

Y: SUPER.TRANS

Locus: Y

da	ʁeʁu	j-ajša	q'aʁat-ƛ'o-jža
1 sg . abs	joy	ii -rise\ pst . w	letter- super - trans
‘I was glad about the letter.’
Note: The verb agrees with the person who becomes joyful despite the presence of another absolutive NP ‘joy’.

84. speak una

Valency pattern: ABS_COM

X: ABS

Y: COM

Locus: Y

habsaʕаt	šamil	maduʁale:=ge	una-ha	gołe
now	pn	neighbor= com	speak- prs	aux . prs
‘Now Shamil is speaking with a neighbor.’

85. give birth j/uwa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

fatima	uj-ja	uža
pn \ erg	[ i ]give.birth- pst . w	son
‘Fatima gave birth to a son.’

86. drop j/ekeła

Valency pattern: CONT_ABS

X: CONT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-lo	uža-qo	b-eke-jła	k'ote
1 sg - gen 2	son- cont	iii -?fall- pot . pst . w	plate( iii )
‘My son dropped a plate.’

87. govern ʕallu j/uwa

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN1

X: ERG

Y: GEN1

Locus: Y

il-lo	(ʕ)anƛ'a-s	ʕallu	b-uwa	šamil-i
1 pl - gen 2	village- gen 1	order( iii )	iii -make\ gnt	pn - erg
‘Shamil runs our village.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

88. miss lok’ʷaƛ'oho liχʷa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-l	lok’ʷa-ƛ'o-ho	liχ-na	uža
1 sg . o - dat	heart( iv )- super -? ad	go- pst . i	son
‘I miss my son.’
Note: The agreement behaviour of “liχ-na” is not clear.

89. follow žoho n/ak'a

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN2

X: ABS

Y: GEN2

Locus: Y

beƛ'q'u-ba	n-ak'a-ha	iho-lo	žoho
sheep- pl . abs	nhpl -go- prs	shepherd- gen 2	behind
‘The sheep follow the shepherd.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

90. dismount j/eqʷa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL

X: ABS

Y: SUPER.EL

Locus: Y

šamil	sajro-ƛ'o-žo	(q'udul)	eq-qa
pn	horse( iii )- super - el	on.the.ground	go.out- pst . w
‘Shamil got down from the horse.’

91. listen tiqʷaχa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

de	zebe-s	radio	tiqo:χa
1 sg . erg	day( v )- gen 1	radio( iii )	listen\ gnt
‘I listen to radio every day.’

92. obey ahi laha

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT.LAT

X: ERG

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: Y

di-lo	uža	išat-qo-l	ahi	l-a:ha
1 sg . o - gen 2	son\ erg	mother. o - cont - lat	ear( iv )	iv -put\ gnt
‘My son always listens to his mother.’

93. hear tiqʷa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-l	keč’i-ba	tiq-qа
1 sg . o - dat	song( iii )- pl . abs	hear- pst . w
‘I heard the songs.’

94. mix šič'a

Valency pattern: ABS_INTER

X: ABS

Y: INTER

Locus: Y

nuc'a	šič-ča	lało-ł
honey( iv )	mix- pst . w	butter( iv ). o - inter
‘The honey got mixed with the butter.’

95. look gic'a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT

X: ABS

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: Y

šamil	gic'a-ha	as-za-qo-l
pn	look- prs	cloud( iv )- pl . o - cont - lat
‘Shamil is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off j/eʁʷa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

de	l-eʁ-ʁa	q'emqosa
1 sg . erg	iv -take.off- pst . w	shawl( iv )
‘I took off my shawl.’

97. dream (sleeping) małła-ł ak'a

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamil	małła-ł	ak'a-ha	išate-l
pn	dream( v )- inter	[ i ]go- prs	mother. o - dat
‘Shamil’s mother dreams about him.’

98. agree razi gołe

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL

X: ABS

Y: SUPER.EL

Locus: Y

c'aldoq'an	razi	gołe	učitel-ƛ'o-žo
pupil	content	be. prs	teacher- super - el
‘The pupil is content with the teacher.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

99. have a quarrel goχa

Valency pattern: ABS_INTER

X: ABS

Y: INTER

Locus: Y

šamil	goχ-χa	hamaʁe-ł
pn	have.a.quarrel- pst . w	friend- inter
‘Shamil had a quarrel with his friend.’

100. cost baha

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

cĩjo-s	baha	q'uni	ʁuruš
salt( iv )- gen 1	price	two	rouble( v )
‘The price of salt is two roubles.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

101. shoot at coƛa

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN2

X: ERG

Y: GEN2

Locus: Y

šamil-i	cojƛa	beła-lo
pn - erg	throw\ pst . w	deer( iii )- gen 2
‘Shamil shot at the deer.’

102. pour j/aha

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	pisok	b-ajša	istakan-ma
pn - erg	sand( iv )	iv -rise\ pst . w	glass( v )- in
‘Shamil poured the sugar into the glass.’

103. lose j/ita

Valency pattern: CONT_ABS

X: CONT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamil-qo	l-it-ta	leq'a-ba
pn - cont	nhpl -be.lost- pst . w	key( iii )- pl . abs
‘Shamil lost his keys.’

104. sink j/iƛ'a

Valency pattern: ABS_INTER.DIR

X: ABS

Y: INTER.DIR

Locus: Y

q'emq'osa	łi-ł-ʁol	l-iƛ'-ƛ'a
shawl( iv )	water( iv )- inter - dir	iv -go- pst . w
‘The shawl sank in the water.’

105. kill j/ihaχa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	b-iha-χ-χa	ʁʷe
pn - erg	iii -die- caus - pst . w	dog( iii )
‘Shamil killed the dog.’

106. hit j/ek'a

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN2

X: ERG

Y: GEN2

Locus: Y

šamil-i	l-ejk'a	ʁʷe-lo
pn - erg	iv -hit\ pst . w	dog( iii )- gen 2
‘Shamil hit the dog.’

107. kiss uba buwa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT

X: ERG

Y: CONT

Locus: Y

šamil-i	uba-č	b-u-ja	isu-lo-č	kande-qo
pn - erg	kiss( iii )- its	iii -make- pst . w	dem . an . o . i - gen 2- its	daughter- cont
‘Shamil kissed his daughter.’

108. read c'alida

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	c'alid-da	tamašaja-b	hĩše
pn - erg	read- pst . w	surprising- iii	book( iii )
‘Shamil read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) žužulaka

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

šamil-i	ãhi-ba	žužulak-ko	gołe
pn - erg	ear( iv )- pl . abs	move- prs	aux . prs
‘Shamil moved his ears.’

110. respect adab buwa

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN1

X: ERG

Y: GEN1

Locus: Y

c'aldoq'an-e	učitele-s	adab	b-u-ho
pupil- erg	teacher- gen 1	respect( iii )	iii -make- prs
‘The pupil respects the teacher.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

111. be squeamish lok'ʷa laha

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.LAT

X: GEN1

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: XY

di-ja	lok'ʷa	l-a:ha	bataχo-qo-l
1 sg . o - gen 1	heart	iv -put\ gnt	bread- cont - lat
‘I am squeamish about bread.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

112. be content razi gołe

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER

X: ABS

Y: SUPER

Locus: Y

išu	iłi	iłi-lo	uža-ƛ’o	razi	gołe
mother	dem . an . o . noni	dem . an . o . noni - gen 2	son- super	content	be. prs
‘Mother is satisfied with her daughter.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love goqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

šamile-l	goq-qa	is-a	maduʁal
pn - dat	fall.in.love- pst . w	dem . an . o . i - gen 1	neighbor
‘Shamil fell in love with his neighbor.’

114. trust buža

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER

X: ABS

Y: SUPER

Locus: Y

c'aldoq'an	buža-ha	učitel-ƛ'o
pupil	believe- prs	teacher- super
‘The pupil trusts the teacher.’

115. sympathise lok'ʷa urʁida

Valency pattern: GEN1_SUB

X: GEN1

Y: SUB

Locus: XY

di-ja	išate-ƛ	lok'ʷa	urʁida-ha
1 sg . o - gen 1	mother- sub	heart( iv )	think- prs
‘I sympathise with my mother.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

116. envy lok'ʷa liχʷa

Valency pattern: GEN1_GEN2

X: GEN1

Y: GEN2

Locus: XY

di-ja	lok'ʷa	liχʷa-ha	isu-lo	žоhоl
1 sg . o - gen 1	heart( iv )	remain- prs	dem . an . o . i - gen 2	behind
‘I envy him.’
Note: The NPs in the genitive display some properties of clause-level arguments.

117. be angry semi mak'a

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.LAT

X: GEN1

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: XY

fatima-s	semi	m-ak'a-ha	hamaʁ-qo-l
pn - gen 1	anger	iii -go- prs	friend- cont - lat
‘Fatima is angry with her friend.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

118. be surprised ažajbła

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.TRANS

X: ABS

Y: SUPER.TRANS

Locus: Y

fatima	аžajb-łа-ja	padarka-ƛ'o-jža
pn	surprised- vblz - pst . w	gift- super - trans
‘Fatima was surprised at this gift.’

119. love (tea) goqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

di-l	c'aq'	go:qa	k'ora
1 sg . o - dat	very	like\ gnt	cheese
‘I like cheese very much.’

120. enjoy goqa

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

di-l	žu	c'aq'	go:qa
1 sg . o - dat	dem . an . abs . prox	very	like\ gnt
‘I like it (soft cheese) very much.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

121. want q'uča

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

il-lo	uža-l	ec'nu	mašina	q'uča-na
1 pl . o - gen 2	son- dat	new	car	want- pst . i
‘Our son wants a new car.’

122. have a grudge semi mak'a

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.LAT

X: GEN1

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: XY

di-lo	χole-s	semi	m-ak'a-ha	uža-qo-l
1 sg . o - gen 2	husband- gen 1	anger	iii -go- prs	son- cont - lat
‘My husband is angry with our son.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

123. take offence j/oχa

Valency pattern: ABS_INTER

X: ABS

Y: INTER

Locus: Y

fatima	j-oχa-ha	hamaʁe-ł
pn	ii -get.offended- prs	friend- inter
‘Shamil has a grudge against her friend.’

124. upset q'ʷarid j/uwa

Valency pattern: TR

X: ERG

Y: ABS

Locus: TR

uža	q'ʷarid	j-uj-ja	išu
son\ erg	sad	ii -make- pst . w	mother
‘The son has upset the mother.’

125. marvel hajranƛa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT

X: ABS

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: Y

da	hun-za-qo-l	hajranƛa-na	gołe
1 sg . abs	mountain- pl . o - cont - lat	be.excited- pst . u	aux . prs
‘I am excited about the mountains.’
Note: This sentence is semantically slightly different from the stimulus.

126. despise ehuba gic'a

Valency pattern: NA

X: *

Y: *

Locus: *

di-lo	χol-i	ehu-ba	gic'a-ha	maduʁal-qo-l
1 sg . o - gen 2	husband- erg	curse- pl . abs	look- prs	neighbor- cont - lat
‘My husband is cursing our neighbor.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

127. get upset q'ʷariła

Valency pattern: ABS_sabalana

X: ABS

Y: sabalana

Locus: Y

uža	q'ʷari-ła-na	gołe	kad	sabałana
son	sad- vblz - pst . u	aux . prs	daughter	because.of
‘The son got upset with the daughter.’

128. get irritated semi mak'a

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.LAT

X: GEN1

Y: CONT.LAT

Locus: XY

di-lo	χole-s	harza	semi	m-a:k'a	uža-qo-l
1 sg . o - gen 2	husband- gen 1	often	anger	iii -go\ gnt	son- cont - lat
‘My husband is often irritated with our son.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

129. be fond lok'ʷa j/eza

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS

X: DAT

Y: ABS

Locus: X

učitele-l	lok'ʷa	ez-na	is-a	učenik
teacher- dat	heart( iv )	[ i ]carry- pst . w	dem . an . o . i - gen 1	pupil( i )
‘The teacher liked the pupil.’
Note: This sentence is semantically slightly different from the stimulus.

130. be shy nuša leqʷa

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.EL

X: GEN1

Y: CONT.EL

Locus: XY

kandi-s	nuša	l-eq-qo	iłi-lo	mani-qo-žo
daughter- gen 1	shame( iv )	iv -go.out- prs	dem . an . o . noni - gen 2	nose- cont - el
‘The daughter is embarrased about her nose.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.