BivalTyp

Khwarshi

Contributed by Irene Gorbunova (Academia.edu profile) and Yurij Chernov (Academia.edu profile).

I.G.'s photo Yu.Ch.'s photo

The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation.

How to cite

Gorbunova, Irene & Yurij Chernov. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Khwarshi. In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames. (Data first published on September 15, 2023; last revised on July 2, 2024.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info, Accessed on )

Basic info

Grammar notes

Basic clause structure and the transitive construction

In Khwarshi, both case marking and argument indexing on the verb display the ergative-absolutive alignment. In the basic transitive construction, the A-argument is in the ergative case, and the P-argument, in the (unmarked) absolutive case. The P-argument also controls the agreement with the verb. The ergative form of nouns coincides with the oblique stem found in other cases. It is mostly marked with suffixes, but there are also instances when the ergative differs from the absolutive only in stress pattern. The stress is not shown graphically in the examples below, however, this particular suprasegmental pattern is marked as \ERG in the gloss. The neutral word order is S(O)V. An example of the transitive construction can be found in (1). 

(1)  šamil-i  l-ica-χ-χa           k'ant'a
     PN-ERG   IV-break-CAUS-PST.W  stick(IV)
     ‘Shamil broke a stick.’

Non-core arguments are flagged by oblique case markers or, rarely, by postpositions (in combination with one of the two genitives or one of the locative cases).

Case system

There are 6 non-locative cases: absolutive, ergative, dative, two genitives and causal. The choice between the genitives depends on the syntactic head: the first genitive (GEN1) is used with an absolutive nominal head, whilst the second genitive (GEN2) is used with oblique heads and postpositions. Verbs rarely take a noun in the genitive case as an argument. There are four more non-locative cases (namely, similative, comitative, vocative and temporal), but their position in the overall case system is disputable, since the first two seem to be marked by clitics and are apparently compatible with other cases, and the later two are not productive forms with case functions. The system of locative cases consists of two layers: 6 localizations (IN ‘inside (a container)’, INTER ‘between, in a substance’, SUB ‘under’, AD ‘at, near’, SUPER ‘on the horizontal surface or above it’ and CONT ‘on the vertical surface, in contact with’) and 6 directionals (the unmarked essive, lative, elative, directive, terminative and translative), which yields 36 combinations. Locative cases have extended non-locative functions.

Verb lemmas

Verbs are cited by the infinitive form with second class agreement marker in form of j/ if the verb has a slot for it. For example ‘to break’ is cited as j/icaχa, whereas the corresponding form in (1) has a different class marker and is in past witnessed form, yielding licaχχa.

Glossing abbreviations

I, II, III, IV, V — 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th class; NONI — any class except I; ABS — absolutive; AD — localization ‘at, near’; ADD — additive particle; AN — anaphoric; ATR — attributive; AUX — auxiliary; CAUS — causative; COM — comitative; CONT — localization ‘on the vertical surface, in contact with’; CVB — converb; DAT — dative; DEM — demonstrative; DIR — directive; EL — elative; ERG — ergative; GEN — genitive; GNT — general tense; HPL — human plural; IMP — imperative; IN — localization ‘inside (a container)’; INF — infinitive; INTER — localization ‘between, in a substance’; ITS — intensifier; LAT — lative; NEG — negation; NHPL — non-human plural; O — oblique stem; PL — plural; PN — person name; POT — potential; PROX — proximal; PRS — present; PST — past; QUOT — quotative; SG — singular; SUB — localization ‘under’ ; SUPER — localization ‘on the horizontal surface or above it’; TRANS — translative; U — unwitnessed; VBLZ — verbalizer; W — witnessed.

Data

Subset examples by valency pattern
Subset examples by locus

1. feel pain j/eƛa

Valency pattern: GEN1_ABS
X: GEN1
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-ja b-eƛ-ƛo lola
1 sg . o - gen 1 iii -hurt- prs foot( iii )
‘My foot hurts.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

2. have (illness) j/eƛa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT
X: ABS
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
di-ja q'ale l-eƛ-ƛo wetrjanka-qо
1 sg . o - gen 1 children hpl -be.ill- prs chicken.pox- cont
‘My children have chicken-pox.’

3. be afraid j/uƛ’a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT
X: ABS
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
di-ja uža u:ƛ'a ʁʷe-qo
1 sg . o - gen 1 son( i ) [ i ]be.afraid\ gnt dog( iii )- cont
‘My son is afraid of the dog.’

4. throw coƛa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo uža ʁur cojƛa
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg stone( v ) throw\ pst . w
‘My son threw a stone.’

5. have enough muwa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l žu os muwa-ha
1 sg . o - dat dem . an . abs . prox money( iii ) be.enough- prs
‘I have enough money.’

6. resemble ajłа gołe

Valency pattern: ABS_AD
X: ABS
Y: AD
Locus: Y
di-ja uža di-lo juq'uči-ho ajłа gołe
1 sg . o - gen 1 son( i ) 1 sg . o - gen 2 old.woman( ii )- ad [ i ]similar be. prs
‘My son resembles my grandma.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

7. believe buža

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
šamil buža-ha isu-lo ʁina-ƛ'о
pn believe- prs dem . an . o . i - gen 2 woman( ii )- super
‘Shamil believes his wife.’

8. take j/aha

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i b-ajsa hĩše ƛen-ƛ'o-žo
pn - erg iii -take\ pst . w book( iii ) shelf( iv )- super - el
‘Shamil took a book from the shelf.’

9. see j/akʷa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l l-akʷa-ha aq
pn - dat iv -see- prs house( iv )
‘Shamil sees a house.’

10. influence j/ihaχa

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
iłi daru-za pahmu b-ih-o:χa
dem . an . o . noni medicine( iii )- pl . erg memory ( iii ) iii -die- caus . gnt
Lit. ‘This medicine kills memory.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

11. encounter j/ukkaja

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l dandi ukkaj-ja di-ja es
pn - dat against encounter- pst . w 1 sg . o - gen 1 brother( i )
‘Shamil encountered my brother.’

12. enter j/eqʷa

Valency pattern: ABS_IN.DIR
X: ABS
Y: IN.DIR
Locus: Y
šamil eq-qa idu-ʁol
pn enter- pst . w house. in - dir
‘Shamil entered the house.’

13. win j/iža

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
šamil iž-ža hamaʁe-ƛ'o-žo šaχmat-ba=n ħajda-na
pn ( i ) [ i ]win- pst . w friend( i )- super - el ches- pl . abs = add play- cvb
‘Shamil beat his friend at chess.’

14. go out j/eqʷa

Valency pattern: ABS_IN.EL
X: ABS
Y: IN.EL
Locus: Y
šamil eq-qa idu-žo ma-ʁol
pn ( i ) [ i ]go.out- pst . w house. in - el outside- dir
‘Shamil went out of the house.’

15. drive j/ec'a

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i zihi b-ec'-c'o hun-ƛ'o-ʁol kuk-a
pn - erg cow( iii ) iii -drive- prs mountain( v )- super - dir eat- inf
‘Shamil is driving the cow to graze on the mountain.’

16. bend j/uk'aχa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo uža l-uk’a-χ-χa ala
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg iv -bend- caus - pst . w branch( iv )
‘Shamil bent the branch.’

17. tell iƛa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT.LAT
X: ERG
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
šamil-i di-qo-l iƛ-ƛa žan nišo horo=ƛƛa
pn - erg 1 sg . o - cont - lat say- pst . w more evening come. imp = quot
‘Shamil told me: “Come again tonight”.’

18. hold j/aqaχa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo uža b-aqaχ-χo hĩše
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg iii -hold- prs book( iii )
‘My son is holding a book.’

19. catch up žoho j/eta

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN2
X: ABS
Y: GEN2
Locus: Y
šamil žoho ejta tušman-lo
pn ( i ) behind [ i ]catch.up\ pst . w enemy( i )- gen 2
‘Shamil caught up with the enemy.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

20. milk t'it'a

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i t’it’-t’a zihi
pn - erg milk- pst . w cow( iii )
‘Shamil milked the cow.’

21. reach j/at'a

Valency pattern: ABS_AD.LAT
X: ABS
Y: AD.LAT
Locus: Y
iłi-lo bala-ha-l at'ek'-k'a šamil
dem . an . o . noni - gen 2 bank( iii )- ad - lat [ i ]reach- pst . w pn ( i )
‘Shamil reached its (the river’s) bank.’

22. touch j/etaχa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT
X: ERG
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
šamil-i qado-qo gud j-etaχ-χa
pn - erg wall( v )- cont shirt( v ) ( v )-touch- pst . w
‘Shamil got his shirt against the wall.’

23. fight j/eheja

Valency pattern: ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
šamil ehe-he tušmale=ge
pn ( i ) [ i ]fight- prs enemy. o = com
‘Shamil is fighting with an enemy.’

24. be friends halmaʁłi l-uwa

Valency pattern: ERG_INTER
X: ERG
Y: INTER
Locus: Y
šamil-i muχamade-ł halmaʁłi l-u-ho gołe
pn - erg pn - inter friendship( iv ) iv -make- prs aux . prs
‘Shamil is making friends with Muhammad again.’

25. think urʁida

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
šamil urʁida-ha ʁina-ƛ'o
pn think- prs wife- super
‘Shamil is thinking about his wife.’

26. eat j/ac'a

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
obut'-i b-ajc'а čuʕа
father. o - erg iii -eat\ pst . w fish( iii )
‘Father ate the fish.’

27. fry išana

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
išat'-i išajna čuʕa
mother. o - erg fry\ pst . w fish( iii )
‘Mother fried the fish.’

28. wait gic'a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
da hoboža hamaʁe-qo-l=na gic'a-na gołe
1 sg . abs now friend- cont - lat = add wait- pst . u aux . prs
‘I am now waiting for a friend.’

29. forget šuƛ'a

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
ilu-l bit'ura-l huni šuƛ'a-na
1 pl - dat correct- iv road( iv ) forget- pst . u
‘We forgot the right way.’

30. depend gic'a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
ʕaq'u zamana-qo-l gic'a-na b-e:ča
mind( iii ) time( iii )- cont - lat look- pst . u iii -be\ gnt
‘One’s mind depends on one’s age.’

31. call goƛ'a

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
de gojƛ'a hamaʁe
1 sg . erg call\ pst . w friend
‘I called a friend.’

32. get to know halmaʁłi l-uwa

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
šamil-i patimate-ł halmaʁłi l-u-na
pn - erg pn - inter friendship( iv ) iv -make- pst . u
‘Shamil made friends with Fatima.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

33. know j/iq'a

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l c'aq' k'ʷet' j-iq'e-he fatima
pn - dat very well ii -know- prs pn
‘Shamil knows Fatima very well.’

34. play (instrument) qʷaja

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo uža qʷaja-ha gitara
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg play- prs guitar
‘My son is playing the guitar.’

35. avoid j/iča

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.EL
X: ABS
Y: CONT.EL
Locus: Y
fatima j-ič-ha šamil-qo-žo
pn ii -run.away- prs pn - cont - el
‘Fatima avoids Shamil.’

36. make j/uƛeχ

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo uža ustur l-uƛe-χ-χa
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg table( iv ) iv -make- caus - pst . w
‘My son made a table.’

37. make fun łasa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
učitel łas-so c'aldoq'an-ƛ'o
teacher make.fun- prs pupil- super
‘The teacher is making fun of the pupil.’

38. have gołe

Valency pattern: GEN1_ABS
X: GEN1
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-s gołe mašina
pn - gen 1 be. prs car
‘Shamil has a car.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

39. look for k'ʷeja

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i k'ʷe-ho leka-ba
pn - erg look.for- prs key( iii )- pl . abs
‘Shamil is looking for his keys.’

40. paint j/eχa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT
X: ERG
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
di-lo uža qado-qo (tošu) l-eχe-na
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg wall( v )- cont porridge( iv ) iv -smear- pst . u
‘My son smeared porridge on the wall.’

41. bite hana

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN1
X: ERG
Y: GEN1
Locus: Y
ʁʷa-ji hajna šamil-es
dog( iii )- erg bite\ pst . w pn - gen 1
‘A dog bit Shamil.’

42. forfeit bataɫa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.EL
X: ABS
Y: CONT.EL
Locus: Y
šamil batała-ja aq-qo-žo
pn part- pst . w house( iv )- cont - el
‘Shamil lost his house.’

43. try to catch aqaχa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i b-aqaχ-χo k'it'u
pn - erg iii -catch- prs cat( iii )
‘Shamil is trying to catch the cat.’

44. break j/icaχa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i l-ica-χ-χa k'ant'a
pn - erg iv -break- caus - pst . w stick( iv )
‘Shamil broke a stick.’

45. flatter ragłal l-uwa

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
rasul-i ħakime-l ragłal l-uj-ja
pn - erg boss( i )- dat good( iv ) iv -make- pst . w
‘Rasul has placated his boss.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

46. love (person) goqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l goqa-ha is-a ʁini
pn - dat love- prs dem . an . o . i - gen 1 wife
‘Shamil loves his wife.’

47. wave šʷana

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
žik'ʷa miq'e-žo q'emq'osa šʷana-ha gołe
man\ erg far- el shawl( iv ) wave- prs aux . prs
‘A man is waving a shawl from a far.’

48. dream j/iha

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
di-ja uža mašina-ƛ'o-žo iha-ha gołe
1 sg . o - gen 1 son( i ) car- super - el [ i ]die- prs aux . prs
‘My son desperately wants a car’, lit. ‘My son is dying about the car.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

49. wash esana

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo uža isu-lo-č žoho esajna k'ot'e
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg dem . an . o . i - gen 2- its after wash\ pst . w plate( iii )
‘My son washed his plate after himself.’

50. put on šiƛ'a

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i šiƛ'-ƛ'a ʁeƛo
pn - erg put.on- pst . w trousers( v )
‘Shamil put on his trousers.’

51. be called ca gołe

Valency pattern: SUPER_ABS
X: SUPER
Y: ABS
Locus: X
a-r-łi gange-ƛ'o ca gołe šalfej
prox - iv - dem . o . noni flower( iv )- super name( iv ) be. prs sage
‘This flower is called sage.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

52. punish j/ajƛ'a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
obu ajƛ-ƛa uža-qo-l
father( i ) [ i ]scorch- pst . w son( i )- cont - lat
‘Father scorched his son.’

53. attack k'oƛa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
boc'-ba k'ojƛa iho-ƛ'o
wolf( iii )- pl . abs attack\ pst . w shepherd( i )- super
‘Wolves attacked the shepherd.’

54. fill (intr) j/ec'a

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN1
X: ABS
Y: GEN1
Locus: Y
wedra l-ejc'a łi-s
bucket( iv ) iv -fill\ pst . w water( iv )- gen 1
‘The bucket filled with water.’

55. find j/isa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
maduʁale-l l-is-sa leka-ba
neighbor- dat nhpl -be.found- pst . w key( iii )- pl . abs
‘Shamil found his keys.’

56. be short j/uwa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l j-uw-aj q'uni ʁuruš
1 sg . o - dat v -be.enough- neg . pst . w two rouble( v )
‘I am two roubles short.’

57. hate j/aca

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l aca-na maduʁal
pn ( i )- dat [ i ]hate- pst . u neighbor( i )
‘Shamil hates his neighbor.’

58. like goqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
isu-l goqa-ha deba gud
dem . an . o . i - dat like- prs 2 sg . o . gen 1 shirt( v )
‘He likes your shirt.’

59. need q'uča

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
maduʁale-l os q'uča-na
neighbor- dat money ( iii ) want- pst . u
‘The neighbor needs money.’

60. surround giłеl j/uƛa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šed-za muk'o giłе-l b-uƛ-o:χa
wall- pl . erg place( iii ) inside- lat iii -whirl- caus . gnt
‘Walls surround the city.’

61. remain ƛiχa

Valency pattern: CONT_ABS
X: CONT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-qo ƛiχ-χa q'uni ʁuruš
1 sg . o - cont remain- pst . w two rouble( v )
‘I have two roubles left.’

62. answer žawab tiƛa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
di-lo uža učitele-l žawab tiƛ-na
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg teacher- dat answer( iii ) give- pst . u
‘My son answered the teacher.’

63. open j/ãʁa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i j-ãʁ-ʁa banka
pn - erg v -open- pst . w can( v )
‘Shamil is opening a can.’

64. be different bat'ija/j j/e:ča

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.EL
X: ABS
Y: CONT.EL
Locus: Y
kʷeč’abe-sa leƛ'a kʷet'abe-qo-žo bat'ija-r l-e:ča
left- atr hand( iv ) right- cont - el different- iv iv -be\ gnt
‘The left hand is different the right one.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

65. fall behind žohol ƛiχa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
šamil ƛiχ-χa hamaʁe-za-ƛ'o-žo žohol
pn remain- pst . w friend- pl . o - super - el behind
‘Shamil fell behind his friends.’

66. plough laƛa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
obut'-i laƛe-he ʁudu
father. o - erg plough- prs field( iv )
‘Father is ploughing the field.’

67. smell muša gołe

Valency pattern: INTER.EL_GEN1
X: INTER.EL
Y: GEN1
Locus: XY
di-lo leła-za-š-šo lija-s muša gołe
1 sg . o - gen 2 hand( iv )- pl . o - inter - el garlic( iv )- gen 1 smell( iii ) be. prs
‘My hands smell of garlic.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

68. cross j/iƛ'a igojžaʁol

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
šamil iƛ'-ƛ'a huni-ƛ'o igo-jža-ʁol
pn ( i ) [ i ]go- pst . w road( iv )- super there- trans - dir
‘Shamil went across the road to the other side.’

69. sing j/eza

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
išat'-i b-ejza bertina-b keč’i
mother. o - erg iii -sing\ pst . w beautiful- iii song( iii )
‘Mother sang a beautiful song.’

70. write qʷaja

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i q'ʷaj-ja q'aʁat
pn - erg write- pst . w letter( iii )
‘Shamil wrote a letter.’

71. drink χiƛa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i χiƛ-ƛa ʁi
pn - erg drink- pst . w milk( v )
‘Shamil drank the milk.’

72. melt j/ẽca

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
de j-enca-χ-χa šitomihi
1 sg . erg v -melt- caus - pst . w spoon( v )
‘I melted a spoon.’

73. match raga

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
di-ja q'emqosa ro:k'a kunta-ƛ'o
1 sg . o - gen 1 shawl( iv ) match\ gnt dress( v )- super
‘This shawl goes well with the dress.’

74. leave hoca

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo hamaʁe hojca aƛ
1 sg . o - gen 2 friend leave\ pst . w village( iii )
‘My friend left the village.’
Note: Although the word for ‘friend’ has no explicit case markers, it is in the ergative, as visible from the GEN2 possessor.

75. cover cucχa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
dajhan-i cuco:χa q'el
carpet- erg cover\ gnt floor( iv )
‘The carpet covers the floor.’

76. remember liqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l k'ʷet' li:qe aq
1 sg - dat well remember\ gnt house( iv )
‘I remember the house well.’

77. help j/uwa

Valency pattern: ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
učitel-i kumak b-uj-ja c'aldoq'ane-l
teacher- erg help( iii ) iii -make- pst . w pupil- dat
‘The teacher helped the pupil.’

78. understand (language) bič'ida

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l dahab bič’i:da aƛ'ilzis mec
1 sg . o - dat small understand\ gnt k hwarshi language( iii )
‘I understand Khwarshi a bit.’

79. hit (target) c'oχa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
piri c'oχ-χa aq-ƛ'o
lightning( iv ) get- pst . w house( iv )- super
‘Lightning struck the house.’

80. cut oneself j/ič'a

Valency pattern: GEN1_ERG
X: GEN1
Y: ERG
Locus: X
di-ja l-ič-ča t'iq-a
1 sg - gen 1 iv -cut- pst . w knife( iv )- erg
‘I cut myself with a knife.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument. It is not entirely clear what triggers agreement here. Probably, some unnamed body-part, such as ‘hand’ or ‘palm’ (both from the IV class).

81. get stuck ɫeʁa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
istakan łeʁ-ʁa ustur-qo-l
glass( v ) stick- pst . w table( iii )- cont - lat
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’

82. lose (game) j/iʁʷa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT
X: ABS
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
da šamil-qo šaχmate-za-l iʁ-ʁa
1 sg . abs pn - cont chess- pl . o - dat [ i ]lose- pst . w
‘I lost to Shamil at chess.’

83. be glad ʁeʁu j/aha

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.TRANS
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.TRANS
Locus: Y
da ʁeʁu j-ajša q'aʁat-ƛ'o-jža
1 sg . abs joy ii -rise\ pst . w letter- super - trans
‘I was glad about the letter.’
Note: The verb agrees with the person who becomes joyful despite the presence of another absolutive NP ‘joy’.

84. speak una

Valency pattern: ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
habsaʕаt šamil maduʁale:=ge una-ha gołe
now pn neighbor= com speak- prs aux . prs
‘Now Shamil is speaking with a neighbor.’

85. give birth j/uwa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
fatima uj-ja uža
pn \ erg [ i ]give.birth- pst . w son
‘Fatima gave birth to a son.’

86. drop j/ekeła

Valency pattern: CONT_ABS
X: CONT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-lo uža-qo b-eke-jła k'ote
1 sg - gen 2 son- cont iii -?fall- pot . pst . w plate( iii )
‘My son dropped a plate.’

87. govern ʕallu j/uwa

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN1
X: ERG
Y: GEN1
Locus: Y
il-lo (ʕ)anƛ'a-s ʕallu b-uwa šamil-i
1 pl - gen 2 village- gen 1 order( iii ) iii -make\ gnt pn - erg
‘Shamil runs our village.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

88. miss lok’ʷaƛ'oho liχʷa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l lok’ʷa-ƛ'o-ho liχ-na uža
1 sg . o - dat heart( iv )- super -? ad go- pst . i son
‘I miss my son.’
Note: The agreement behaviour of “liχ-na” is not clear.

89. follow žoho n/ak'a

Valency pattern: ABS_GEN2
X: ABS
Y: GEN2
Locus: Y
beƛ'q'u-ba n-ak'a-ha iho-lo žoho
sheep- pl . abs nhpl -go- prs shepherd- gen 2 behind
‘The sheep follow the shepherd.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

90. dismount j/eqʷa

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
šamil sajro-ƛ'o-žo (q'udul) eq-qa
pn horse( iii )- super - el on.the.ground go.out- pst . w
‘Shamil got down from the horse.’

91. listen tiqʷaχa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
de zebe-s radio tiqo:χa
1 sg . erg day( v )- gen 1 radio( iii ) listen\ gnt
‘I listen to radio every day.’

92. obey ahi laha

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT.LAT
X: ERG
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
di-lo uža išat-qo-l ahi l-a:ha
1 sg . o - gen 2 son\ erg mother. o - cont - lat ear( iv ) iv -put\ gnt
‘My son always listens to his mother.’

93. hear tiqʷa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l keč’i-ba tiq-qа
1 sg . o - dat song( iii )- pl . abs hear- pst . w
‘I heard the songs.’

94. mix šič'a

Valency pattern: ABS_INTER
X: ABS
Y: INTER
Locus: Y
nuc'a šič-ča lało-ł
honey( iv ) mix- pst . w butter( iv ). o - inter
‘The honey got mixed with the butter.’

95. look gic'a

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
šamil gic'a-ha as-za-qo-l
pn look- prs cloud( iv )- pl . o - cont - lat
‘Shamil is looking at the clouds.’

96. take off j/eʁʷa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
de l-eʁ-ʁa q'emqosa
1 sg . erg iv -take.off- pst . w shawl( iv )
‘I took off my shawl.’

97. dream (sleeping) małła-ł ak'a

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamil małła-ł ak'a-ha išate-l
pn dream( v )- inter [ i ]go- prs mother. o - dat
‘Shamil’s mother dreams about him.’

98. agree razi gołe

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
c'aldoq'an razi gołe učitel-ƛ'o-žo
pupil content be. prs teacher- super - el
‘The pupil is content with the teacher.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

99. have a quarrel goχa

Valency pattern: ABS_INTER
X: ABS
Y: INTER
Locus: Y
šamil goχ-χa hamaʁe-ł
pn have.a.quarrel- pst . w friend- inter
‘Shamil had a quarrel with his friend.’

100. cost baha

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
cĩjo-s baha q'uni ʁuruš
salt( iv )- gen 1 price two rouble( v )
‘The price of salt is two roubles.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.

101. shoot at coƛa

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN2
X: ERG
Y: GEN2
Locus: Y
šamil-i cojƛa beła-lo
pn - erg throw\ pst . w deer( iii )- gen 2
‘Shamil shot at the deer.’

102. pour j/aha

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i pisok b-ajša istakan-ma
pn - erg sand( iv ) iv -rise\ pst . w glass( v )- in
‘Shamil poured the sugar into the glass.’

103. lose j/ita

Valency pattern: CONT_ABS
X: CONT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamil-qo l-it-ta leq'a-ba
pn - cont nhpl -be.lost- pst . w key( iii )- pl . abs
‘Shamil lost his keys.’

104. sink j/iƛ'a

Valency pattern: ABS_INTER.DIR
X: ABS
Y: INTER.DIR
Locus: Y
q'emq'osa łi-ł-ʁol l-iƛ'-ƛ'a
shawl( iv ) water( iv )- inter - dir iv -go- pst . w
‘The shawl sank in the water.’

105. kill j/ihaχa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i b-iha-χ-χa ʁʷe
pn - erg iii -die- caus - pst . w dog( iii )
‘Shamil killed the dog.’

106. hit j/ek'a

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN2
X: ERG
Y: GEN2
Locus: Y
šamil-i l-ejk'a ʁʷe-lo
pn - erg iv -hit\ pst . w dog( iii )- gen 2
‘Shamil hit the dog.’

107. kiss uba buwa

Valency pattern: ERG_CONT
X: ERG
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
šamil-i uba-č b-u-ja isu-lo-č kande-qo
pn - erg kiss( iii )- its iii -make- pst . w dem . an . o . i - gen 2- its daughter- cont
‘Shamil kissed his daughter.’

108. read c'alida

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i c'alid-da tamašaja-b hĩše
pn - erg read- pst . w surprising- iii book( iii )
‘Shamil read an interesting book.’

109. move (bodypart) žužulaka

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i ãhi-ba žužulak-ko gołe
pn - erg ear( iv )- pl . abs move- prs aux . prs
‘Shamil moved his ears.’

110. respect adab buwa

Valency pattern: ERG_GEN1
X: ERG
Y: GEN1
Locus: Y
c'aldoq'an-e učitele-s adab b-u-ho
pupil- erg teacher- gen 1 respect( iii ) iii -make- prs
‘The pupil respects the teacher.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

111. be squeamish lok'ʷa laha

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.LAT
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: XY
di-ja lok'ʷa l-a:ha bataχo-qo-l
1 sg . o - gen 1 heart iv -put\ gnt bread- cont - lat
‘I am squeamish about bread.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

112. be content razi gołe

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
išu iłi iłi-lo uža-ƛ’o razi gołe
mother dem . an . o . noni dem . an . o . noni - gen 2 son- super content be. prs
‘Mother is satisfied with her daughter.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.

113. fall in love goqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l goq-qa is-a maduʁal
pn - dat fall.in.love- pst . w dem . an . o . i - gen 1 neighbor
‘Shamil fell in love with his neighbor.’

114. trust buža

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
c'aldoq'an buža-ha učitel-ƛ'o
pupil believe- prs teacher- super
‘The pupil trusts the teacher.’

115. sympathise lok'ʷa urʁida

Valency pattern: GEN1_SUB
X: GEN1
Y: SUB
Locus: XY
di-ja išate-ƛ lok'ʷa urʁida-ha
1 sg . o - gen 1 mother- sub heart( iv ) think- prs
‘I sympathise with my mother.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

116. envy lok'ʷa liχʷa

Valency pattern: GEN1_GEN2
X: GEN1
Y: GEN2
Locus: XY
di-ja lok'ʷa liχʷa-ha isu-lo žоhоl
1 sg . o - gen 1 heart( iv ) remain- prs dem . an . o . i - gen 2 behind
‘I envy him.’
Note: The NPs in the genitive display some properties of clause-level arguments.

117. be angry semi mak'a

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.LAT
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: XY
fatima-s semi m-ak'a-ha hamaʁ-qo-l
pn - gen 1 anger iii -go- prs friend- cont - lat
‘Fatima is angry with her friend.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

118. be surprised ažajbła

Valency pattern: ABS_SUPER.TRANS
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.TRANS
Locus: Y
fatima аžajb-łа-ja padarka-ƛ'o-jža
pn surprised- vblz - pst . w gift- super - trans
‘Fatima was surprised at this gift.’

119. love (tea) goqa

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l c'aq' go:qa k'ora
1 sg . o - dat very like\ gnt cheese
‘I like cheese very much.’

120. enjoy goqa

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
di-l žu c'aq' go:qa
1 sg . o - dat dem . an . abs . prox very like\ gnt
‘I like it (soft cheese) very much.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

121. want q'uča

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
il-lo uža-l ec'nu mašina q'uča-na
1 pl . o - gen 2 son- dat new car want- pst . i
‘Our son wants a new car.’

122. have a grudge semi mak'a

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.LAT
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: XY
di-lo χole-s semi m-ak'a-ha uža-qo-l
1 sg . o - gen 2 husband- gen 1 anger iii -go- prs son- cont - lat
‘My husband is angry with our son.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

123. take offence j/oχa

Valency pattern: ABS_INTER
X: ABS
Y: INTER
Locus: Y
fatima j-oχa-ha hamaʁe-ł
pn ii -get.offended- prs friend- inter
‘Shamil has a grudge against her friend.’

124. upset q'ʷarid j/uwa

Valency pattern: TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
uža q'ʷarid j-uj-ja išu
son\ erg sad ii -make- pst . w mother
‘The son has upset the mother.’

125. marvel hajranƛa

Valency pattern: ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
da hun-za-qo-l hajranƛa-na gołe
1 sg . abs mountain- pl . o - cont - lat be.excited- pst . u aux . prs
‘I am excited about the mountains.’
Note: This sentence is semantically slightly different from the stimulus.

126. despise ehuba gic'a

Valency pattern: NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
di-lo χol-i ehu-ba gic'a-ha maduʁal-qo-l
1 sg . o - gen 2 husband- erg curse- pl . abs look- prs neighbor- cont - lat
‘My husband is cursing our neighbor.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.

127. get upset q'ʷariła

Valency pattern: ABS_sabalana
X: ABS
Y: sabalana
Locus: Y
uža q'ʷari-ła-na gołe kad sabałana
son sad- vblz - pst . u aux . prs daughter because.of
‘The son got upset with the daughter.’

128. get irritated semi mak'a

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.LAT
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: XY
di-lo χole-s harza semi m-a:k'a uža-qo-l
1 sg . o - gen 2 husband- gen 1 often anger iii -go\ gnt son- cont - lat
‘My husband is often irritated with our son.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.

129. be fond lok'ʷa j/eza

Valency pattern: DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
učitele-l lok'ʷa ez-na is-a učenik
teacher- dat heart( iv ) [ i ]carry- pst . w dem . an . o . i - gen 1 pupil( i )
‘The teacher liked the pupil.’
Note: This sentence is semantically slightly different from the stimulus.

130. be shy nuša leqʷa

Valency pattern: GEN1_CONT.EL
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.EL
Locus: XY
kandi-s nuša l-eq-qo iłi-lo mani-qo-žo
daughter- gen 1 shame( iv ) iv -go.out- prs dem . an . o . noni - gen 2 nose- cont - el
‘The daughter is embarrased about her nose.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.