Khwarshi
Contributed by Irene Gorbunova (Academia.edu profile ) and Yurij Chernov (Academia.edu profile ).
The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation.
How to cite
Gorbunova, Irene & Yurij Chernov. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Khwarshi.
In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp:
Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames.
(Data first published on September 15, 2023; last revised on November 9, 2023.)
(Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info , Accessed on )
Basic info
Coordinates: 42.27, 46.0 .
Genealogy (as given in WALS ). Family: Nakh-Daghestanian, genus: Avar-Andic-Tsezic.
Macro-area: West Asia and the Caucasus.
Data
Subset examples by valency pattern
Any
NA
ABS_AD
ABS_AD.LAT
ABS_COM
ABS_CONT
ABS_CONT.EL
ABS_CONT.LAT
ABS_GEN1
ABS_GEN2
ABS_IN.DIR
ABS_IN.EL
ABS_INTER
ABS_INTER.DIR
ABS_sabalana
ABS_SUPER
ABS_SUPER.EL
ABS_SUPER.TRANS
CONT_ABS
DAT_ABS
ERG_CONT
ERG_CONT.LAT
ERG_DAT
ERG_GEN1
ERG_GEN2
ERG_INTER
GEN1_ABS
GEN1_CONT.EL
GEN1_CONT.LAT
GEN1_ERG
GEN1_GEN2
GEN1_SUB
INTER.EL_GEN1
SUPER_ABS
TR
Subset examples by locus
Any
*
TR
X
XY
Y
Valency pattern:
GEN1_ABS
X: GEN1
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-ja
b-eƛ-ƛo
lola
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
iii
-hurt-
prs
foot(
iii
)
‘My foot hurts.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT
X: ABS
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
di-ja
q'ale
l-eƛ-ƛo
wetrjanka-qо
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
children
hpl
-be.ill-
prs
chicken.pox-
cont
‘My children have chicken-pox.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT
X: ABS
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
di-ja
uža
u:ƛ'a
ʁʷe-qo
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
son(
i
)
[
i
]be.afraid\
gnt
dog(
iii
)-
cont
‘My son is afraid of the dog.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo
uža
ʁur
cojƛa
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son\
erg
stone(
v
)
throw\
pst
.
w
‘My son threw a stone.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l
žu
os
muwa-ha
1
sg
.
o
-
dat
dem
.
an
.
abs
.
prox
money(
iii
)
be.enough-
prs
‘I have enough money.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_AD
X: ABS
Y: AD
Locus: Y
di-ja
uža
di-lo
juq'uči-ho
ajłа
gołe
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
son(
i
)
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
old.woman(
ii
)-
ad
[
i
]similar
be.
prs
‘My son resembles my grandma.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
šamil
buža-ha
isu-lo
ʁina-ƛ'о
pn
believe-
prs
dem
.
an
.
o
.
i
-
gen
2
woman(
ii
)-
super
‘Shamil believes his wife.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
b-ajsa
hĩše
ƛen-ƛ'o-žo
pn
-
erg
iii
-take\
pst
.
w
book(
iii
)
shelf(
iv
)-
super
-
el
‘Shamil took a book from the shelf.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l
l-akʷa-ha
aq
pn
-
dat
iv
-see-
prs
house(
iv
)
‘Shamil sees a house.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
iłi
daru-za
pahmu
b-ih-o:χa
dem
.
an
.
o
.
noni
medicine(
iii
)-
pl
.
erg
memory
(
iii
)
iii
-die-
caus
.
gnt
Lit. ‘This medicine kills memory.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l
dandi
ukkaj-ja
di-ja
es
pn
-
dat
against
encounter-
pst
.
w
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
brother(
i
)
‘Shamil encountered my brother.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_IN.DIR
X: ABS
Y: IN.DIR
Locus: Y
šamil
eq-qa
idu-ʁol
pn
enter-
pst
.
w
house.
in
-
dir
‘Shamil entered the house.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
šamil
iž-ža
hamaʁe-ƛ'o-žo
šaχmat-ba=n
ħajda-na
pn
(
i
)
[
i
]win-
pst
.
w
friend(
i
)-
super
-
el
ches-
pl
.
abs
=
add
play-
cvb
‘Shamil beat his friend at chess.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_IN.EL
X: ABS
Y: IN.EL
Locus: Y
šamil
eq-qa
idu-žo
ma-ʁol
pn
(
i
)
[
i
]go.out-
pst
.
w
house.
in
-
el
outside-
dir
‘Shamil went out of the house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
zihi
b-ec'-c'o
hun-ƛ'o-ʁol
kuk-a
pn
-
erg
cow(
iii
)
iii
-drive-
prs
mountain(
v
)-
super
-
dir
eat-
inf
‘Shamil is driving the cow to graze on the mountain.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo
uža
l-uk’a-χ-χa
ala
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son\
erg
iv
-bend-
caus
-
pst
.
w
branch(
iv
)
‘Shamil bent the branch.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_CONT.LAT
X: ERG
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
šamil-i
di-qo-l
iƛ-ƛa
žan
nišo
horo=ƛƛa
pn
-
erg
1
sg
.
o
-
cont
-
lat
say-
pst
.
w
more
evening
come.
imp
=
quot
‘Shamil told me: “Come again tonight”.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo
uža
b-aqaχ-χo
hĩše
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son\
erg
iii
-hold-
prs
book(
iii
)
‘My son is holding a book.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_GEN2
X: ABS
Y: GEN2
Locus: Y
šamil
žoho
ejta
tušman-lo
pn
(
i
)
behind
[
i
]catch.up\
pst
.
w
enemy(
i
)-
gen
2
‘Shamil caught up with the enemy.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
t’it’-t’a
zihi
pn
-
erg
milk-
pst
.
w
cow(
iii
)
‘Shamil milked the cow.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_AD.LAT
X: ABS
Y: AD.LAT
Locus: Y
iłi-lo
bala-ha-l
at'ek'-k'a
šamil
dem
.
an
.
o
.
noni
-
gen
2
bank(
iii
)-
ad
-
lat
[
i
]reach-
pst
.
w
pn
(
i
)
‘Shamil reached its (the river’s) bank.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_CONT
X: ERG
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
šamil-i
qado-qo
gud
j-etaχ-χa
pn
-
erg
wall(
v
)-
cont
shirt(
v
)
(
v
)-touch-
pst
.
w
‘Shamil got his shirt against the wall.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
šamil
ehe-he
tušmale=ge
pn
(
i
)
[
i
]fight-
prs
enemy.
o
=
com
‘Shamil is fighting with an enemy.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_INTER
X: ERG
Y: INTER
Locus: Y
šamil-i
muχamade-ł
halmaʁłi
l-u-ho
gołe
pn
-
erg
pn
-
inter
friendship(
iv
)
iv
-make-
prs
aux
.
prs
‘Shamil is making friends with Muhammad again.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
šamil
urʁida-ha
ʁina-ƛ'o
pn
think-
prs
wife-
super
‘Shamil is thinking about his wife.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
obut'-i
b-ajc'а
čuʕа
father.
o
-
erg
iii
-eat\
pst
.
w
fish(
iii
)
‘Father ate the fish.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
išat'-i
išajna
čuʕa
mother.
o
-
erg
fry\
pst
.
w
fish(
iii
)
‘Mother fried the fish.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
da
hoboža
hamaʁe-qo-l=na
gic'a-na
gołe
1
sg
.
abs
now
friend-
cont
-
lat
=
add
wait-
pst
.
u
aux
.
prs
‘I am now waiting for a friend.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
ilu-l
bit'ura-l
huni
šuƛ'a-na
1
pl
-
dat
correct-
iv
road(
iv
)
forget-
pst
.
u
‘We forgot the right way.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
ʕaq'u
zamana-qo-l
gic'a-na
b-e:ča
mind(
iii
)
time(
iii
)-
cont
-
lat
look-
pst
.
u
iii
-be\
gnt
‘One’s mind depends on one’s age.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
de
gojƛ'a
hamaʁe
1
sg
.
erg
call\
pst
.
w
friend
‘I called a friend.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
šamil-i
patimate-ł
halmaʁłi
l-u-na
pn
-
erg
pn
-
inter
friendship(
iv
)
iv
-make-
pst
.
u
‘Shamil made friends with Fatima.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l
c'aq'
k'ʷet'
j-iq'e-he
fatima
pn
-
dat
very
well
ii
-know-
prs
pn
‘Shamil knows Fatima very well.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo
uža
qʷaja-ha
gitara
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son
\
erg
play-
prs
guitar
‘My son is playing the guitar.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.EL
X: ABS
Y: CONT.EL
Locus: Y
fatima
j-ič-ha
šamil-qo-žo
pn
ii
-run.away-
prs
pn
-
cont
-
el
‘Fatima avoids Shamil.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo
uža
ustur
l-uƛe-χ-χa
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son\
erg
table(
iv
)
iv
-make-
caus
-
pst
.
w
‘My son made a table.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
učitel
łas-so
c'aldoq'an-ƛ'o
teacher
make.fun-
prs
pupil-
super
‘The teacher is making fun of the pupil.’
Valency pattern:
GEN1_ABS
X: GEN1
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-s
gołe
mašina
pn
-
gen
1
be.
prs
car
‘Shamil has a car.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
k'ʷe-ho
leka-ba
pn
-
erg
look.for-
prs
key(
iii
)-
pl
.
abs
‘Shamil is looking for his keys.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_CONT
X: ERG
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
di-lo
uža
qado-qo
(tošu)
l-eχe-na
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son\
erg
wall(
v
)-
cont
porridge(
iv
)
iv
-smear-
pst
.
u
‘My son smeared porridge on the wall.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_GEN1
X: ERG
Y: GEN1
Locus: Y
ʁʷa-ji
hajna
šamil-es
dog(
iii
)-
erg
bite\
pst
.
w
pn
-
gen
1
‘A dog bit Shamil.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.EL
X: ABS
Y: CONT.EL
Locus: Y
šamil
batała-ja
aq-qo-žo
pn
part-
pst
.
w
house(
iv
)-
cont
-
el
‘Shamil lost his house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
b-aqaχ-χo
k'it'u
pn
-
erg
iii
-catch-
prs
cat(
iii
)
‘Shamil is trying to catch the cat.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
l-ica-χ-χa
k'ant'a
pn
-
erg
iv
-break-
caus
-
pst
.
w
stick(
iv
)
‘Shamil broke a stick.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
rasul-i
ħakime-l
ragłal
l-uj-ja
pn
-
erg
boss(
i
)-
dat
good(
iv
)
iv
-make-
pst
.
w
‘Rasul has placated his boss.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l
goqa-ha
is-a
ʁini
pn
-
dat
love-
prs
dem
.
an
.
o
.
i
-
gen
1
wife
‘Shamil loves his wife.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
žik'ʷa
miq'e-žo
q'emq'osa
šʷana-ha
gołe
man\
erg
far-
el
shawl(
iv
)
wave-
prs
aux
.
prs
‘A man is waving a shawl from a far.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
di-ja
uža
mašina-ƛ'o-žo
iha-ha
gołe
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
son(
i
)
car-
super
-
el
[
i
]die-
prs
aux
.
prs
‘My son desperately wants a car’, lit. ‘My son is dying about the car.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo
uža
isu-lo-č
žoho
esajna
k'ot'e
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son\
erg
dem
.
an
.
o
.
i
-
gen
2-
its
after
wash\
pst
.
w
plate(
iii
)
‘My son washed his plate after himself.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
šiƛ'-ƛ'a
ʁeƛo
pn
-
erg
put.on-
pst
.
w
trousers(
v
)
‘Shamil put on his trousers.’
Valency pattern:
SUPER_ABS
X: SUPER
Y: ABS
Locus: X
a-r-łi
gange-ƛ'o
ca
gołe
šalfej
prox
-
iv
-
dem
.
o
.
noni
flower(
iv
)-
super
name(
iv
)
be.
prs
sage
‘This flower is called sage.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
obu
ajƛ-ƛa
uža-qo-l
father(
i
)
[
i
]scorch-
pst
.
w
son(
i
)-
cont
-
lat
‘Father scorched his son.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
boc'-ba
k'ojƛa
iho-ƛ'o
wolf(
iii
)-
pl
.
abs
attack\
pst
.
w
shepherd(
i
)-
super
‘Wolves attacked the shepherd.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_GEN1
X: ABS
Y: GEN1
Locus: Y
wedra
l-ejc'a
łi-s
bucket(
iv
)
iv
-fill\
pst
.
w
water(
iv
)-
gen
1
‘The bucket filled with water.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
maduʁale-l
l-is-sa
leka-ba
neighbor-
dat
nhpl
-be.found-
pst
.
w
key(
iii
)-
pl
.
abs
‘Shamil found his keys.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l
j-uw-aj
q'uni
ʁuruš
1
sg
.
o
-
dat
v
-be.enough-
neg
.
pst
.
w
two
rouble(
v
)
‘I am two roubles short.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l
aca-na
maduʁal
pn
(
i
)-
dat
[
i
]hate-
pst
.
u
neighbor(
i
)
‘Shamil hates his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
isu-l
goqa-ha
deba
gud
dem
.
an
.
o
.
i
-
dat
like-
prs
2
sg
.
o
.
gen
1
shirt(
v
)
‘He likes your shirt.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
maduʁale-l
os
q'uča-na
neighbor-
dat
money
(
iii
) want-
pst
.
u
‘The neighbor needs money.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šed-za
muk'o
giłе-l
b-uƛ-o:χa
wall-
pl
.
erg
place(
iii
)
inside-
lat
iii
-whirl-
caus
.
gnt
‘Walls surround the city.’
Valency pattern:
CONT_ABS
X: CONT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-qo
ƛiχ-χa
q'uni
ʁuruš
1
sg
.
o
-
cont
remain-
pst
.
w
two
rouble(
v
)
‘I have two roubles left.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
di-lo
uža
učitele-l
žawab
tiƛ-na
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son\
erg
teacher-
dat
answer(
iii
)
give-
pst
.
u
‘My son answered the teacher.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
j-ãʁ-ʁa
banka
pn
-
erg
v
-open-
pst
.
w
can(
v
)
‘Shamil is opening a can.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.EL
X: ABS
Y: CONT.EL
Locus: Y
kʷeč’abe-sa
leƛ'a
kʷet'abe-qo-žo
bat'ija-r
l-e:ča
left-
atr
hand(
iv
)
right-
cont
-
el
different-
iv
iv
-be\
gnt
‘The left hand is different the right one.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
šamil
ƛiχ-χa
hamaʁe-za-ƛ'o-žo
žohol
pn
remain-
pst
.
w
friend-
pl
.
o
-
super
-
el
behind
‘Shamil fell behind his friends.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
obut'-i
laƛe-he
ʁudu
father.
o
-
erg
plough-
prs
field(
iv
)
‘Father is ploughing the field.’
Valency pattern:
INTER.EL_GEN1
X: INTER.EL
Y: GEN1
Locus: XY
di-lo
leła-za-š-šo
lija-s
muša
gołe
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
hand(
iv
)-
pl
.
o
-
inter
-
el
garlic(
iv
)-
gen
1
smell(
iii
)
be.
prs
‘My hands smell of garlic.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
šamil
iƛ'-ƛ'a
huni-ƛ'o
igo-jža-ʁol
pn
(
i
)
[
i
]go-
pst
.
w
road(
iv
)-
super
there-
trans
-
dir
‘Shamil went across the road to the other side.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
išat'-i
b-ejza
bertina-b
keč’i
mother.
o
-
erg
iii
-sing\
pst
.
w
beautiful-
iii
song(
iii
)
‘Mother sang a beautiful song.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
q'ʷaj-ja
q'aʁat
pn
-
erg
write-
pst
.
w
letter(
iii
)
‘Shamil wrote a letter.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
χiƛ-ƛa
ʁi
pn
-
erg
drink-
pst
.
w
milk(
v
)
‘Shamil drank the milk.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
de
j-enca-χ-χa
šitomihi
1
sg
.
erg
v
-melt-
caus
-
pst
.
d
spoon(
v
)
‘I melted a spoon.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
di-ja
q'emqosa
ro:k'a
kunta-ƛ'o
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
shawl(
iv
)
match\
gnt
dress(
v
)-
super
‘This shawl goes well with the dress.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
di-lo
hamaʁe
hojca
aƛ
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
friend
leave\
pst
.
w
village(
iii
)
‘My friend left the village.’
Note: Although the word for ‘friend’ has no explicit case markers, it is in the ergative, as visible from the GEN2 possessor.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
dajhan-i
cuco:χa
q'el
carpet-
erg
cover\
gnt
floor(
iv
)
‘The carpet covers the floor.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l
k'ʷet'
li:qe
aq
1
sg
-
dat
well
remember\
gnt
house(
iv
)
‘I remember the house well.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
učitel-i
kumak
b-uj-ja
c'aldoq'ane-l
teacher-
erg
help(
iii
)
iii
-make-
pst
.
w
pupil-
dat
‘The teacher helped the pupil.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l
dahab
bič’i:da
aƛ'ilzis
mec
1
sg
.
o
-
dat
small
understand\
gnt
k
hwarshi
language(
iii
)
‘I understand Khwarshi a bit.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
piri
c'oχ-χa
aq-ƛ'o
lightning(
iv
)
get-
pst
.
w
house(
iv
)-
super
‘Lightning struck the house.’
Valency pattern:
GEN1_ERG
X: GEN1
Y: ERG
Locus: X
di-ja
l-ič-ča
t'iq-a
1
sg
-
gen
1
iv
-cut-
pst
.
d
knife(
iv
)-
erg
‘I cut myself with a knife.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument. It is not entirely clear what triggers agreement here. Probably, some unnamed body-part, such as ‘hand’ or ‘palm’ (both from the IV class).
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
istakan
łeʁ-ʁa
ustur-qo-l
glass(
v
)
stick-
pst
.
w
table(
iii
)-
cont
-
lat
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT
X: ABS
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
da
šamil-qo
šaχmate-za-l
iʁ-ʁa
1
sg
.
abs
pn
-
cont
chess-
pl
.
o
-
dat
[
i
]lose-
pst
.
w
‘I lost to Shamil at chess.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER.TRANS
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.TRANS
Locus: Y
da
ʁeʁu
j-ajša
q'aʁat-ƛ'o-jža
1
sg
.
abs
joy
ii
-rise\
pst
.
w
letter-
super
-
trans
‘I was glad about the letter.’
Note: The verb agrees with the person who becomes joyful despite the presence of another absolutive NP ‘joy’.
Valency pattern:
ABS_COM
X: ABS
Y: COM
Locus: Y
habsaʕаt
šamil
maduʁale:=ge
una-ha
gołe
now
pn
neighbor=
com
speak-
prs
aux
.
prs
‘Now Shamil is speaking with a neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
fatima
uj-ja
uža
pn
\
erg
[
i
]give.birth-
pst
.
w
son
‘Fatima gave birth to a son.’
Valency pattern:
CONT_ABS
X: CONT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-lo
uža-qo
b-eke-jła
k'ote
1
sg
-
gen
2
son-
cont
iii
-?fall-
pot
.
pst
.
w
plate(
iii
)
‘My son dropped a plate.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_GEN1
X: ERG
Y: GEN1
Locus: Y
il-lo
(ʕ)anƛ'a-s
ʕallu
b-uwa
šamil-i
1
pl
-
gen
2
village-
gen
1
order(
iii
)
iii
-make\
gnt
pn
-
erg
‘Shamil runs our village.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l
lok’ʷa-ƛ'o-ho
liχ-na
uža
1
sg
.
o
-
dat
heart(
iv
)-
super
-?
ad
go-
pst
.
i
son
‘I miss my son.’
Note: The agreement behaviour of “liχ-na” is not clear.
Valency pattern:
ABS_GEN2
X: ABS
Y: GEN2
Locus: Y
beƛ'q'u-ba
n-ak'a-ha
iho-lo
žoho
sheep-
pl
.
abs
nhpl
-go-
prs
shepherd-
gen
2
behind
‘The sheep follow the shepherd.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
šamil
sajro-ƛ'o-žo
(q'udul)
eq-qa
pn
horse(
iii
)-
super
-
el
on.the.ground
go.out-
pst
.
w
‘Shamil got down from the horse.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
de
zebe-s
radio
tiqo:χa
1
sg
.
erg
day(
v
)-
gen
1
radio(
iii
)
listen\
gnt
‘I listen to radio every day.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_CONT.LAT
X: ERG
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
di-lo
uža
išat-qo-l
ahi
l-a:ha
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
son\
erg
mother.
o
-
cont
-
lat
ear(
iv
)
iv
-put\
gnt
‘My son always listens to his mother.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l
keč’i-ba
tiq-qа
1
sg
.
o
-
dat
song(
iii
)-
pl
.
abs
hear-
pst
.
w
‘I heard the songs.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_INTER
X: ABS
Y: INTER
Locus: Y
nuc'a
šič-ča
lało-ł
honey(
iv
)
mix-
pst
.
w
butter(
iv
).
o
-
inter
‘The honey got mixed with the butter.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
šamil
gic'a-ha
as-za-qo-l
pn
look-
prs
cloud(
iv
)-
pl
.
o
-
cont
-
lat
‘Shamil is looking at the clouds.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
de
l-eʁ-ʁa
q'emqosa
1
sg
.
erg
iv
-take.off-
pst
.
w
shawl(
iv
)
‘I took off my shawl.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamil
małła-ł
ak'a-ha
išate-l
pn
dream(
v
)-
inter
[
i
]go-
prs
mother.
o
-
dat
‘Shamil’s mother dreams about him.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER.EL
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.EL
Locus: Y
c'aldoq'an
razi
gołe
učitel-ƛ'o-žo
pupil
content
be.
prs
teacher-
super
-
el
‘The pupil is content with the teacher.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_INTER
X: ABS
Y: INTER
Locus: Y
šamil
goχ-χa
hamaʁe-ł
pn
have.a.quarrel-
pst
.
w
friend-
inter
‘Shamil had a quarrel with his friend.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
cĩjo-s
baha
q'uni
ʁuruš
salt(
iv
)-
gen
1
price
two
rouble(
v
)
‘The price of salt is two roubles.’
Note: Not included in the database because X is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.
Valency pattern:
ERG_GEN2
X: ERG
Y: GEN2
Locus: Y
šamil-i
cojƛa
beła-lo
pn
-
erg
throw\
pst
.
w
deer(
iii
)-
gen
2
‘Shamil shot at the deer.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
pisok
b-ajša
istakan-ma
pn
-
erg
sand(
iv
)
iv
-rise\
pst
.
w
glass(
v
)-
in
‘Shamil poured the sugar into the glass.’
Valency pattern:
CONT_ABS
X: CONT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamil-qo
l-it-ta
leq'a-ba
pn
-
cont
nhpl
-be.lost-
pst
.
w
key(
iii
)-
pl
.
abs
‘Shamil lost his keys.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_INTER.DIR
X: ABS
Y: INTER.DIR
Locus: Y
q'emq'osa
łi-ł-ʁol
l-iƛ'-ƛ'a
shawl(
iv
)
water(
iv
)-
inter
-
dir
iv
-go-
pst
.
w
‘The shawl sank in the water.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
b-iha-χ-χa
ʁʷe
pn
-
erg
iii
-die-
caus
-
pst
.
w
dog(
iii
)
‘Shamil killed the dog.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_GEN2
X: ERG
Y: GEN2
Locus: Y
šamil-i
l-ejk'a
ʁʷe-lo
pn
-
erg
iv
-hit\
pst
.
w
dog(
iii
)-
gen
2
‘Shamil hit the dog.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_CONT
X: ERG
Y: CONT
Locus: Y
šamil-i
uba-č
b-u-ja
isu-lo-č
kande-qo
pn
-
erg
kiss(
iii
)-
its
iii
-make-
pst
.
w
dem
.
an
.
o
.
i
-
gen
2-
its
daughter-
cont
‘Shamil kissed his daughter.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
c'alid-da
tamašaja-b
hĩše
pn
-
erg
read-
pst
.
w
surprising-
iii
book(
iii
)
‘Shamil read an interesting book.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šamil-i
ãhi-ba
žužulak-ko
gołe
pn
-
erg
ear(
iv
)-
pl
.
abs
move-
prs
aux
.
prs
‘Shamil moved his ears.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_GEN1
X: ERG
Y: GEN1
Locus: Y
c'aldoq'an-e
učitele-s
adab
b-u-ho
pupil-
erg
teacher-
gen
1
respect(
iii
)
iii
-make-
prs
‘The pupil respects the teacher.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
GEN1_CONT.LAT
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: XY
di-ja
lok'ʷa
l-a:ha
bataχo-qo-l
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
heart
iv
-put\
gnt
bread-
cont
-
lat
‘I am squeamish about bread.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
išu
iłi
iłi-lo
uža-ƛ’o
razi
gołe
mother
dem
.
an
.
o
.
noni
dem
.
an
.
o
.
noni
-
gen
2
son-
super
content
be.
prs
‘Mother is satisfied with her daughter.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
šamile-l
goq-qa
is-a
maduʁal
pn
-
dat
fall.in.love-
pst
.
w
dem
.
an
.
o
.
i
-
gen
1
neighbor
‘Shamil fell in love with his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER
X: ABS
Y: SUPER
Locus: Y
c'aldoq'an
buža-ha
učitel-ƛ'o
pupil
believe-
prs
teacher-
super
‘The pupil trusts the teacher.’
Valency pattern:
GEN1_SUB
X: GEN1
Y: SUB
Locus: XY
di-ja
išate-ƛ
lok'ʷa
urʁida-ha
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
mother-
sub
heart(
iv
)
think-
prs
‘I sympathise with my mother.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
GEN1_GEN2
X: GEN1
Y: GEN2
Locus: XY
di-ja
lok'ʷa
liχʷa-ha
isu-lo
žоhоl
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
1
heart(
iv
)
remain-
prs
dem
.
an
.
o
.
i
-
gen
2
behind
‘I envy him.’
Note: The NPs in the genitive display some properties of clause-level arguments.
Valency pattern:
GEN1_CONT.LAT
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: XY
fatima-s
semi
m-ak'a-ha
hamaʁ-qo-l
pn
-
gen
1
anger
iii
-go-
prs
friend-
cont
-
lat
‘Fatima is angry with her friend.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPER.TRANS
X: ABS
Y: SUPER.TRANS
Locus: Y
fatima
аžajb-łа-ja
padarka-ƛ'o-jža
pn
surprised-
vblz
-
pst
.
w
gift-
super
-
trans
‘Fatima was surprised at this gift.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
di-l
c'aq'
go:qa
k'ora
1
sg
.
o
-
dat
very
like\
gnt
cheese
‘I like cheese very much.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
di-l
žu
c'aq'
go:qa
1
sg
.
o
-
dat
dem
.
an
.
abs
.
prox
very
like\
gnt
‘I like it (soft cheese) very much.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
il-lo
uža-l
ec'nu
mašina
q'uča-na
1
pl
.
o
-
gen
2
son-
dat
new
car
want-
pst
.
i
‘Our son wants a new car.’
Valency pattern:
GEN1_CONT.LAT
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: XY
di-lo
χole-s
semi
m-ak'a-ha
uža-qo-l
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
husband-
gen
1
anger
iii
-go-
prs
son-
cont
-
lat
‘My husband is angry with our son.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
ABS_INTER
X: ABS
Y: INTER
Locus: Y
fatima
j-oχa-ha
hamaʁe-ł
pn
ii
-get.offended-
prs
friend-
inter
‘Shamil has a grudge against her friend.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
uža
q'ʷarid
j-uj-ja
išu
son\
erg
sad
ii
-make-
pst
.
w
mother
‘The son has upset the mother.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_CONT.LAT
X: ABS
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: Y
da
hun-za-qo-l
hajranƛa-na
gołe
1
sg
.
abs
mountain-
pl
.
o
-
cont
-
lat
be.excited-
pst
.
u
aux
.
prs
‘I am excited about the mountains.’
Note: This sentence is semantically slightly different from the stimulus.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
di-lo
χol-i
ehu-ba
gic'a-ha
maduʁal-qo-l
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
husband-
erg
curse-
pl
.
abs
look-
prs
neighbor-
cont
-
lat
‘My husband is cursing our neighbor.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.
Valency pattern:
ABS_sabalana
X: ABS
Y: sabalana
Locus: Y
uža
q'ʷari-ła-na
gołe
kad
sabałana
son
sad-
vblz
-
pst
.
u
aux
.
prs
daughter
because.of
‘The son got upset with the daughter.’
Valency pattern:
GEN1_CONT.LAT
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.LAT
Locus: XY
di-lo
χole-s
harza
semi
m-a:k'a
uža-qo-l
1
sg
.
o
-
gen
2
husband-
gen
1
often
anger
iii
-go\
gnt
son-
cont
-
lat
‘My husband is often irritated with our son.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.
Valency pattern:
DAT_ABS
X: DAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
učitele-l
lok'ʷa
ez-na
is-a
učenik
teacher-
dat
heart(
iv
)
[
i
]carry-
pst
.
w
dem
.
an
.
o
.
i
-
gen
1
pupil(
i
)
‘The teacher liked the pupil.’
Note: This sentence is semantically slightly different from the stimulus.
Valency pattern:
GEN1_CONT.EL
X: GEN1
Y: CONT.EL
Locus: XY
kandi-s
nuša
l-eq-qo
iłi-lo
mani-qo-žo
daughter-
gen
1
shame(
iv
)
iv
-go.out-
prs
dem
.
an
.
o
.
noni
-
gen
2
nose-
cont
-
el
‘The daughter is embarrased about her nose.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level argument.