Italian
Contributed by Anna Alexandrova (academia.edu profile ). Maria Ralko greatly contributed to the technical preparation of the Italian dataset.
How to cite
Alexandrova, Anna. 2022. Bivalent patterns in Italian.
In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp:
Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames.
St. Petersburg: Institute for Linguistic Studies, RAS.
(Data first published on May 14, 2022; last revised on May 9, 2023.)
(Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info , Accessed on )
Basic info
Coordinates: 43.05, 12.65 .
Genealogy (as given in WALS ). Family: Indo-European, genus: Romance.
Macro-area: Europe.
Grammar notes
Basic clause structure and the transitive construction
Italian displays the nominative-accusative alignment. Nominal core arguments (A, S and O) remain unflagged, so that the distinction between subject and direct object is mainly indicated by word order, which is predominantly SVO. By contrast, pronominal object clitics are used before the verb. They come in a fixed order and display three distinct cases. Nominal arguments other than A, S and O are flagged by prepositions. Subjects (A and S) are indexed on the verbs. In some contexts, participles in analytic constructions also signal the number and gender of the direct object.
Case system
Italian has no morphological case on nouns. Traditionally, personal pronouns are described as having three case-marked forms: nominative, accusative and dative. However, there are actually further variations in the form of pronouns, depending on the presence of stress and the syntactic environment.
Verb lemmas
Verbs are shown in the infinitive form.
Glossing abbreviations
AUX — auxiliary; CL — clitic; DEF — definite; F — feminine; INDF — indefinite; INF — infinitive; INT — intensifier; M — masculine; PL — plural; PN — person name; POSS — possessive; PRS — present; PST — past; PTCP — participle; REFL — reflexive ; SG — singular.
Data
Subset examples by valency pattern
Any
NA
a_SBJ
SBJ_a
SBJ_con
SBJ_da
SBJ_di
SBJ_in
SBJ_per
SBJ_PRED
SBJ_rispetto.a
TR
Subset examples by locus
Any
*
TR
X
Y
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
duol-e
la
test-a
to
pn
(
m
)
ache-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
f
head-
sg
.
f
‘Leo has a headache.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
l’
influenz-a
pn
(
m
)
have.3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
f
flu-
sg
.
f
‘Leo has a flu.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
paur-a
del
can-e
pn
(
m
)
have.3
sg
.
prs
fear-
sg
.
f
of.
def
.
sg
.
m
dog-
sg
.
m
‘Leo is afraid of the dog.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
tirato
un
sass-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
throw.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
stone-
sg
.
m
‘Leo threw a stone.’
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
bast-ano
i
sold-i
to
pn
(
m
)
be_enough-3
pl
.
prs
def
.
pl
.
m
money-
pl
.
m
‘Leo has enough money.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
Leo
somigli-a
a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
look_like-3
sg
.
prs
to
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo resembles Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
Leo
cred-e
a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
believe-3
sg
.
prs
to
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo believes Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
preso
un
libr-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
take.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
book-
sg
.
m
‘Leo took a book.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ved-e
un-a
cas-a
pn
(
m
)
see-3
sg
.
prs
indf
.
sg
-
f
house-
sg
.
f
‘Leo sees a house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
l’età
influenz-a
negativamente
la
memori-a
def
.
sg
.
f
-age.
sg
.
f
influence-3
sg
.
prs
negatively
def
.
sg
.
f
memory-
sg
.
f
‘Age negatively influences memory.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
incontrato
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
meet.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo encountered Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_in
X: SBJ
Y: in
Locus: Y
Leo
è
entrat-o
nella
cas-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
enter.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
in.
def
.
sg
.
f
house-
sg
.
f
‘Leo entered the house.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
vinto
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
win.
pst
.
ptcp
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo won over Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_da
X: SBJ
Y: da
Locus: Y
Leo
è
uscit-o
dall’
uffici-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
exit.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
by.
def
.
sg
.
m
office-
sg
.
m
‘Leo exited the office.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
port-a
la
mucc-a
a
pascol-o
pn
(
m
)
lead-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
f
cow-
sg
.
f
to
pasture-
sg
.
m
‘Leo is leading the cow to the pasture.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
piegato
un
ramoscell-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
bend.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
branch-
sg
.
m
‘Pedro bent a branch.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
detto
a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
say.
pst
.
ptcp
to
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo told Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
tien-e
un
libr-o
in
man-o
pn
(
m
)
hold-3
sg
.
prs
indf
.
sg
.
m
book-
sg
.
m
in
hand-
sg
.
f
‘Leo is holding a book in his hands.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
rincorso
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
reach.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo caught up with Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
munto
la
mucc-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
milk.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
f
cow-
sg
.
f
‘Leo milked the cow.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
Leo
è
arrivat-o
a
riv-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
reach.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
to
shore-
sg
.
f
‘Leo reached the coast.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
toccato
il
mur-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
touch.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
m
wall-
sg
.
m
‘Leo touched the wall.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
si
azzuff-a
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
refl
fight-3
sg
.
prs
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is fighting with Maria.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Leo
è
amic-o
di
Maria
pn
(
m
)
be.
prs
.3
sg
friend-
sg
.
m
of
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is friends with Maria.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
Leo
pens-a
a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
think-3
sg
.
prs
to
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is thinking about Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
mangiato
un-a
mel-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
eat.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
-
f
apple-
sg
.
f
‘Leo ate an apple.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
fritto
il
pesc-e
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
fry.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
m
fish-
sg
.
m
‘Leo fried the fish.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
aspett-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
wait-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is waiting for Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
Leo
si
è
dimenticat-o
dell’
altr-a
strad-a
pn
(
m
)
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
forget.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
of.
def
.
sg
.
f
other-
sg
.
f
road-
sg
.
f
‘Leo forgot about the other road.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_da
X: SBJ
Y: da
Locus: Y
la
salut-e
dipend-e
dall’
età
def
.
sg
.
f
health-
sg
.
f
depend-3
sg
.
prs
by.
def
.
sg
.
f
age.
sg
.
f
‘Health depends on age.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
chiamato
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
call.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo called Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
conosciuto
Maria
un
ann-o
fa
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
know_someone.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
f
)
indf
.
sg
.
m
year-
sg
.
m
ago
‘Leo got to know Maria a year ago.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
conosc-e
Maria
pn
(
m
)
know_someone-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo knows Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
suon-a
la
chitarr-a
pn
(
m
)
play-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
f
guitar-
sg
.
f
‘Leo is playing the guitar.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
evit-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
avoid-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo avoids Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
fabbricato
un-a
bomb-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
make.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
-
f
bomb-
sg
.
f
‘Leo made a bomb.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
schernisc-e
Maria
pn
(
m
)
mock-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is making fun of Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
un-a
macchin-a
pn
(
m
)
have-3
sg
.
prs
indf
.
sg
-
f
car-
sg
.
f
‘Leo has a car.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
cerc-a
le
chiav-i
pn
(
m
)
look_for-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
pl
.
f
key-
pl
.
f
‘Leo is looking for the keys.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
pitturato
il
recint-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
paint.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
m
fence-
sg
.
m
‘Leo painted the fence.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
il
can-e
ha
morso
Leo
def
.
sg
.
m
dog-
sg
.
m
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
bite.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
m
)
‘The dog bit Leo.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
perso
cas-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
lose.
pst
.
ptcp
house-
sg
.
f
‘Leo lost house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
cerc-a
di
cattur-are
il
gatt-o
pn
(
m
)
look_for-3
sg
.
prs
of
catch-
inf
def
.
sg
.
m
cat-
sg
.
m
‘Leo is catching the cat.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
rotto
un
baston-e
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
break.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
stick-
sg
.
m
‘Leo broke the stick.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
lusing-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
flatter-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is flattering Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
am-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
love-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo loves Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
agit-a
un
fazzolett-o
pn
(
m
)
wave-3
sg
.
prs
indf
.
sg
.
m
handkerchief-
sg
.
m
‘Leo is waving a handkerchief.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
sogn-a
un-a
macchin-a
pn
(
m
)
dream-3
sg
.
prs
indf
.
sg
-
f
car-
sg
.
f
‘Leo is dreaming of a car.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
lavato
la
tazz-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
wash.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
f
cup-
sg
.
f
‘Leo washed the cup.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
si
è
mess-o
i
pantalon-i
pn
(
m
)
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
put_on.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
def
.
pl
.
m
trousers-
pl
.
m
‘Leo put on trousers.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_PRED
X: SBJ
Y: PRED
Locus: Y
quest-o
strument-o
si
chiam-a
bussol-a
this-
sg
.
m
instrument-
sg
.
m
refl
call-3
sg
.
prs
compass-
sg
.
f
‘This instrument is called a compass.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
punito
su-o
figli-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
punish.
pst
.
ptcp
poss
.3
sg
-
sg
.
m
son-
sg
.
m
‘Leo punished his son.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
l’
ors-o
ha
aggredito
un
pescator-e
def
.
sg
.
m
bear-
sg
.
m
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
attack.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
fisherman-
sg
.
m
‘The bear attacked a fisherman.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
il
secchi-o
si
è
riempit-o
d’
acqu-a
def
.
sg
.
m
bucket-
sg
.
m
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
fill.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
of
water-
sg
.
f
‘The bucket filled up with water.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
trovato
le
chiav-i
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
find.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
pl
.
f
key-
pl
.
f
‘Leo found the keys.’
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
manc-a
un
dollar-o
to
pn
(
m
)
lack-3
sg
.
prs
indf
.
sg
.
m
dollar-
sg
.
m
‘Leo is one dollar short.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
odi-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
hate-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo hates Maria.’
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
piac-e
quest-a
camici-a
to
pn
(
m
)
like-3
sg
.
prs
this-
sg
.
f
shirt-
sg
.
f
‘Leo likes this shirt.’
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
serv-ono
sold-i
to
pn
(
m
)
need-3
pl
.
prs
money-
pl
.
m
‘Leo needs money.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
le
mur-a
circond-ano
la
città
def
.
pl
.
f
wall-
pl
.
f
surround-3
pl
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
f
city.
sg
.
f
‘The walls surround the city.’
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
sono
rimast-i
dieci
dollar-i
to
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
pl
.
prs
stay.
pst
.
ptcp
-
pl
.
m
10
dollar-
pl
.
m
‘Leo has ten dollars left.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
risposto
all’
insegnant-e
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
answer.
pst
.
ptcp
to.
def
.
sg
.
m
teacher-
sg
.
m
‘Leo answered the teacher.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
aperto
un
barattol-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
open.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
can-
sg
.
m
‘Leo opened a can.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_da
X: SBJ
Y: da
Locus: Y
la
mi-a
camici-a
è
divers-a
dalla
tu-a
def
.
sg
.
f
poss
.1
sg
-
sg
.
f
shirt-
sg
.
f
be-3
sg
.
prs
different-
sg
.
f
by.
def
.
sg
.
f
poss
.2
sg
-
sg
.
f
‘My shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
SBJ_rispetto.a
X: SBJ
Y: rispetto.a
Locus: Y
Leo
è
rimast-o
indietro
rispetto
a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
stay.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
behind
compared
to
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo fell behind Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ar-a
il
camp-o
pn
(
m
)
plough-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
m
field-
sg
.
m
‘Leo is ploughing the field.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
le
mi-e
man-i
sanno
di
benzin-a
def
.
pl
.
f
poss
.1
sg
-
pl
.
f
hand-
pl
.
f
smell.3
pl
.
prs
.
of
gasoline-
sg
.
f
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
attraversato
la
strad-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
cross.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
f
street-
sg
.
f
‘Leo crossed the street.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
cantato
un-a
bell-a
canzon-e
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
sing.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
-
f
beautiful-
sg
.
f
song-
sg
.
f
‘Leo sang a beautiful song.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
scritto
un-a
letter-a
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
write.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
-
f
letter-
sg
.
f
‘Leo wrote a letter.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
bevuto
il
latt-e
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
drink.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
m
milk-
sg
.
m
‘Leo drank the milk.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
fuso
un
pezz-o
di
piomb-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
melt.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
piece-
sg
.
m
of
lead-
sg
.
m
‘Leo melted a piece of lead.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
quest-a
cintur-a
si
abbin-a
al
mi-o
vestit-o
this-
sg
.
f
belt-
sg
.
f
refl
go_together-3
sg
.
prs
to.
def
.
sg
.
m
poss
.1
sg
-
sg
.
m
dress-
sg
.
m
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
lasciato
la
su-a
città
natal-e
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
leave.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
f
poss
.3
sg
-
sg
.
f
city.
sg
.
f
native-
sg
.
f
‘Leo left his native city.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
il
tappet-o
copr-e
tutt-o
il
paviment-o
def
.
sg
.
m
carpet-
sg
.
m
cover-3
sg
.
prs
all-
sg
.
m
def
.
sg
.
m
floor-
sg
.
m
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ricord-a
bene
la
cas-a
pn
(
m
)
remember-3
sg
.
prs
well
def
.
sg
.
f
house-
sg
.
f
‘Leo remembers the house well.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
aiutato
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
help.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo helped Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
capisc-e
il
frances-e
pn
(
m
)
understand-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
m
f
rench-
sg
.
m
‘Leo understands French.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_in
X: SBJ
Y: in
Locus: Y
un
fulmin-e
è
finit-o
nel-la
cas-a
indf
.
sg
.
m
lightning-
sg
.
m
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
strike.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
in.
def
.
sg
-
f
house-
sg
.
f
‘The lightning struck the house.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
si
è
tagliat-o
con
il
rasoi-o
pn
(
m
)
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
cut.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
with
def
.
sg
.
m
razor-
sg
.
m
‘Leo cut himself with the razor.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
il
bicchier-e
si
è
appiccicat-o
al
tavol-o
def
.
sg
.
m
glass-
sg
.
m
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
stick.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
to.
def
.
sg
.
m
table-
sg
.
m
‘The glass hot stuck to the table.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
perso
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
lose.
pst
.
ptcp
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo lost to Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_per
X: SBJ
Y: per
Locus: Y
Leo
si
è
rallegrat-o
per
la
letter-a
pn
(
m
)
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
be_happy.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
for
def
.
sg
.
f
letter-
sg
.
f
‘Leo was glad about the letter.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
parl-a
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
talk-3
sg
.
prs
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is talking to Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Maria
ha
partorito
un
figli-o
pn
(
f
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
give_birth.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
son-
sg
.
m
‘Maria gave birth to a son.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
fatto
cad-ere
un
bicchier-e
pn
(
f
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
make.
pst
.
ptcp
fall-
inf
indf
.
sg
.
m
glass-
sg
.
m
‘Leo dropped a glass.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
dirig-e
il
nostr-o
paes-e
pn
(
m
)
rule-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
m
poss
.1
pl
-
sg
.
m
village-
sg
.
m
‘Leo runs our village.’
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
manc-a
Maria
to
pn
(
m
)
lack-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo misses Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
segu-e
Maria
pn
(
m
)
follow-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo follows Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_da
X: SBJ
Y: da
Locus: Y
Leo
è
smontat-o
dal
cavall-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
dismount.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
by.
def
.
sg
.
m
horse-
sg
.
m
‘Leo dismounted the horse.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ascolt-a
la
radio
pn
(
m
)
listen-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
f
radio.
sg
.
f
‘Leo is listening to the radio.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
Leo
obbedisc-e
alla
mamm-a
pn
(
m
)
obey-3
sg
.
prs
to.
def
.
sg
.
f
mom-
sg
.
f
‘Leo obeys the mom.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
sent-e
la
music-a
pn
(
m
)
hear-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
f
music-
sg
.
f
‘Leo hears the music.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
il
miel-e
si
è
fus-o
con
il
latt-e
def
.
sg
.
m
honey-
sg
.
m
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
mix.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
with
def
.
sg
.
m
milk-
sg
.
m
‘The honey is mixing with the milk.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
guard-a
le
nuvol-e
pn
(
m
)
look_at-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
pl
.
f
cloud-
pl
.
f
‘Leo is looking at the clouds.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
si
è
levat-o
la
camici-a
pn
(
m
)
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
remove.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
def
.
sg
.
f
shirt-
sg
.
f
‘Leo took off the shirt.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
sogn-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
dream-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is dreaming of Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
concordato
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
agree.
pst
.
ptcp
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo agreed with Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
litigato
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
argue.
pst
.
ptcp
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo had a quarrel with Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
la
tazz-a
cost-a
un
dollar-o
def
.
sg
.
f
cup-
sg
.
f
cost-3
sg
.
prs
indf
.
sg
.
m
dollar-
sg
.
m
‘The cup costs a dollar.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_a
X: SBJ
Y: a
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
sparato
all’
uccell-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
shoot.
pst
.
ptcp
to.
def
.
sg
.
m
bird-
sg
.
m
‘Leo shot a bird.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
messo
lo
zuccher-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
put.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
sg
.
m
sugar-
sg
.
m
‘Leo poured some sugar.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
perso
le
chiav-i
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
lose.
pst
.
ptcp
def
.
pl
.
f
key-
pl
.
f
‘Leo lost the keys.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_in
X: SBJ
Y: in
Locus: Y
il
tronc-o
di
legn-o
è
affondat-o
nell’
acqu-a
def
.
sg
.
m
log-
sg
.
m
of
wood-
sg
.
m
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
sink.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
in.
def
.
sg
.
f
water-
sg
.
f
‘The log sank in the water.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
ucciso
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
kill.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo killed Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
colpito
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
hit.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo hit Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
baciato
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
kiss.
pst
.
ptcp
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo kissed Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
letto
un
libr-o
interessant-e
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
read.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
book-
sg
.
m
interesting-
sg
.
m
‘Leo read an interesting book.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
mosso
un
dit-o
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
move.
pst
.
ptcp
indf
.
sg
.
m
finger-
sg
.
m
‘Leo moved a finger.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
rispett-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
respect-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo respects Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
Leo
si
schif-a
dei
piatt-i
sporch-i
pn
(
m
)
refl
be_disgusted-3
sg
.
prs
of.
def
.
pl
.
m
dish-
pl
.
m
dirty-
pl
.
m
‘Leo is squeamish about dirty dishes.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
Leo
è
content-o
di
su-o
figli-o
pn
(
m
)
be.3
sg
.
prs
pleased-
sg
.
m
of
poss
.3
sg
-
sg
.
m
son-
sg
.
m
‘Leo is pleased with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
Leo
si
è
innamorat-o
di
Maria
pn
(
m
)
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
fall_in_love.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
of
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo fell in love with Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
Leo
si
fid-a
di
Maria
pn
(
m
)
refl
trust-3
sg
.
prs
of
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo trusts Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
Leo
ha
pietà
di
su-a
madr-e
pn
(
m
)
have.3
sg
.
prs
pity.
sg
.
f
of
poss
.3
sg
-
sg
.
f
mother-
sg
.
f
‘Leo fells sorry for his mother.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
invidi-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
envy-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo envies Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
è
arrabbiat-o
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
be.3
sg
.
prs
angry-
sg
.
m
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is angry with Maria.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (passive).
Valency pattern:
SBJ_da
X: SBJ
Y: da
Locus: Y
Leo
è
rimast-o
sorpres-o
dal
regal-o
pn
(
m
)
be.3
sg
.
prs
stay.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
surprise.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
by.
def
.
sg
.
m
gift-
sg
.
m
‘Leo got surprised at the gift.’
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
piac-e
il
tè
to
pn
(
m
)
like-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
m
tea.
sg
.
m
‘Leo loves tea.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
si
god-e
il
tè
cald-o
pn
(
m
)
int
enjoy-3
sg
.
prs
def
.
sg
.
m
tea.
sg
.
m
hot-
sg
.
m
‘Leo is enjoying the hot tea.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
vuol-e
un
cellular-e
nuov-o
pn
(
m
)
want-3
sg
.
prs
indf
.
sg
.
m
mobile_phone-
sg
.
m
new-
sg
.
m
‘Leo wants a new mobile phone.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
è
arrabbiat-o
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
be.3
sg
.
prs
angry-
sg
.
m
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo holds a grudge against Maria.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate (passive).
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
ci
è
rimast-o
male
con
Maria
pn
(
m
)
cl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
stay.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
bad
with
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo got offended at Maria.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
ha
reso
molto
trist-e
Maria
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
make.
pst
.
ptcp
very
sad-
sg
.
f
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo made Maria very sad.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_da
X: SBJ
Y: da
Locus: Y
Leo
è
rimast-o
stupit-o
dalla
città
pn
(
m
)
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
stay.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
impress.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
by.
def
.
sg
.
f
city.
sg
.
f
‘Leo was impressed by this city.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: SBJ
Y: DO
Locus: TR
Leo
disprezz-a
Maria
pn
(
m
)
despise-3
sg
.
prs
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo despises Maria.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_per
X: SBJ
Y: per
Locus: Y
Leo
si
è
rammaricat-o
per
su-o
figli-o
pn
(
m
)
refl
aux
.3
sg
.
prs
get_upset.
pst
.
ptcp
-
sg
.
m
for
poss
.3
sg
-
sg
.
m
son-
sg
.
m
‘Leo got upset with his son.’
Valency pattern:
SBJ_con
X: SBJ
Y: con
Locus: Y
Leo
si
adir-a
con
su-a
figli-a
pn
(
m
)
refl
get_angry-3
sg
.
prs
with
poss
.3
sg
-
sg
.
f
daughter-
sg
.
f
‘Leo is getting irritated with his daughter.’
Valency pattern:
a_SBJ
X: a
Y: SBJ
Locus: X
a
Leo
st-a
simpatic-a
Maria
to
pn
(
m
)
be-3
sg
.
prs
nice-
sg
.
f
pn
(
f
)
‘Leo is fond of Maria.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
SBJ_di
X: SBJ
Y: di
Locus: Y
Leo
si
vergogn-a
della
su-a
statur-a
pn
(
m
)
refl
be_ashamed-3
sg
.
prs
of.
def
.
f
.
sg
poss
.3
sg
-
sg
.
f
height-
sg
.
f
‘Leo is ashamed of his height.’