Tsugni Dargwa
Contributed by Gasangusen Sulaibanov (Academia.edu profile )
The data were gathered in 2023 from R. Sulaibanov and K. Sulaibanova. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation, but Gasangusen Sulaibanov took advantage of his own capacity of a native speaker as well.
How to cite
Sulaibanov, Gasangusen. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Tsugni Dargwa.
In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames.
(Data first published on November 2, 2023;
last revised on January 29, 2024.) (Available online at https://www.bivaltyp.info ,
Accessed on .)
Basic info
Coordinates: 42.11, 47.4 .
Genealogy (as given in WALS ). Family: Nakh-Daghestanian, genus: Dargwic.
Macro-area: West Asia and the Caucasus.
Grammar notes
Basic clause structure and the transitive construction
Tsugni Dargwa exhibits ergative-absolutive alignment, feature agreement based on nominal class (gender/number) as well as person agreement, and a free word order. Tsugni Dargwa is a highly agglutinative language both in its nominal and verbal domain, with an extensive inventory of cases, particularly locative cases, totaling over 170 case-like forms.
Case system
The grammatical cases include the nominative (NOM), which is formally unmarked and corresponds to the bare form of the word, as well the ergative (ERG), genitive (GEN), dative (DAT), comitative (COM) and consecutive (CONS) cases. The basic markers of grammatical cases are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Grammatical cases
case
marker
Nominative
-∅
Ergative
-li
Genitive
-la
Dative
-j
Comitative
-cːala
Сonsecutive
-gitːe
The system of spatial cases is a complex system with three spatial dimensions: localisation, orientation, and direction, which combine. There are seven locative morphemes in Tsugni, indicating locations in relation to the marked noun, see Table 2.
Table 2. Localisation markers
localisation
marker
APUD
-šːu
ANTE
-sa
POST
-gira
INTER
-cːе
SUB
-gu
SUPER
-gе
LOC
-lе
When unaccompanied by orientation or direction morphemes, locative markers denote the meaning of motion towards a location, that is, the lative meaning. The combination of a locative morpheme with an agreement marker that indexes the gender and number of the argument in the nominative case (intransitive subject or transitive object) results in the essive orientation, which is used to denote a stative position is space (without motion). Two futher orientation strategies involve the -r marker, which denotes motion from (ablative), and finally an orientation called ‘directive’, which is marked by the combination of gender/number agreement marker and the vowel ‘a’. Both ablative and directive markers are combined with one of four direction markers. Thus, the meaning of motion from a location is signalled by one of four complex morphemes: -rka , -rha , -rca or -rde . All in all, there are 70 (7 localisations x (2 orientations + 2x4 orientation/direction combinations)) distinct localisation + orientation + direction combinations. Together with grammatical cases, this yields 76 case forms.
Verb lemmas
Verbs are cited in the infinitive form, and roots that have aspectual pairs are given in the order PFV/IPFV. Verbs that include a gender and number agreement markers are presented with the singular neuter class marker b- . In the case of complex verbal predicates, the non-verbal part is separated from the auxiliary verb and is given only before the first (PFV) verbal root. Additionally, if the verb contains a locative prefix or prefixes, it is/they are indicated by a hyphen.
Glossing abbreviations
ABL — ablative; ADD — additive; ANTE — localisation ‘in front of’; APUD — localization ‘near, to, at’; ATR — attributive; CAUS — causative; CNTRS — contrastive; CNV — converb; COM — comitative; COMP — comparative; COP — copula; DAT — dative; DOWN — direction ‘down’; ERG — ergative; ESS — essive; EXST — existential; F — feminine; GEN — genitive; HAB — habitual; HPL — human plural; ID — ideophone; INF — infinitive; INTER — localization ‘between, in’; IPFV — imperfective; LAT — lative; LOC — locative (common localization); M — masculine; MSD — masdar; N — neutral; NEG — negation; NMLZ — nominalization; NPL — neutral plural; OBL — oblique; ON — localization ‘on’; PFV — perfective; PL — plural; POST — localization ‘behind, after’; PRET — preterite; PROG — progressive (continuous); PRS — present; PST — past; SUB — localization ‘under’; SUPER — localization ‘on, above’; TR — transitive; UP — direction ‘up’.
Data
Subset examples by valency pattern
Any
NA
DAT_NOM
ERG_DAT
ERG_ERG
ERG_GEN
ERG_INTER(LAT)
ERG_SUPER(LAT)
GEN_NOM
GEN_SUPER(LAT)
NOM_ANTE.ABL.DOWN
NOM_COM
NOM_COMP
NOM_ERG
NOM_GEN
NOM_INTER(LAT)
NOM_INTER.ABL.DOWN
NOM_INTER.ESS
NOM_LOC(LAT)
NOM_LOC.ABL.DOWN
NOM_POST
NOM_SUB.ESS
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
NOM_SUPER.ABL.DOWN
NOM_SUPER.ESS
SUPER(LAT)_NOM(NO.AGR)
TR
Subset examples by locus
Any
*
TR
X
XY
Y
Valency pattern:
GEN_NOM
X: GEN
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-la
hanna
bek'
icː-ule=cabi
boy-
gen
now
head
hurt.
ipfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
n
(3)
‘The boy now has a headache.’
Note: NP in the genitive is arguably a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
NOM_GEN
X: NOM
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
šatːiq'a-la
w-iχ-uble=caj
boy
cold.
pl
.
obl
-
gen
m
-be.
pfv
-
cnv
.
pret
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy has the flu.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. NP in the genitive is arguably a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
NOM_ANTE.ABL.DOWN
X: NOM
Y: ANTE.ABL.DOWN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
χːʷe-sa-rka
uruχ
w-ik'-ule=caj
boy
dog-
ante
-
abl
.
down
fear
m
-say-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is afraid of the dog.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
qːarqːa
ix-ub
boy-
erg
stone
throw.
ipfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy threw a stone.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
arc
d-irʁ-ule=cadi
boy-
dat
money
npl
-be.enough.
ipfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
npl
(3)
‘The boy has enough money.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
tːati-ge
miši-le=caj
boy
father-
super
(
lat
)
similar-
adv
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy resembles his father.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
tːatːi
rurs:i-ge
w-iχ
ag-ur
father
girl-
super
(
lat
)
m
-trust
go.
ipfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The father believes his daughter.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
žuz
ka-sː-ib
boy-
erg
book
down
-take.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy took a book.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
qali
če-b-ag-ib
boy-
dat
home
on
-
n
-see.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy sees a house.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
zumra
qːarši
r-ič-ib
boy-
dat
neighbor
opposite
f
-get.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy encountered his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_LOC(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: LOC(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
uškul-le
urkːe
ha-wq-un
boy
school-
loc
(
lat
)
(
m
)inside(
lat
)
up-(
m
)move.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy entered the school.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER.ESS
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ESS
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-ge-w
če-w-w-iχ-ub
boy
neighbor-
super
-
m
.
ess
on
-
m
-
m
-be.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy beat his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_LOC.ABL.DOWN
X: NOM
Y: LOC.ABL.DOWN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
uškul-le-rka
tːura
uqun
boy
school-
loc
-
abl
.
down
outside(
lat
)
(
m
)move.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The went out of the school.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
ħaˤjwan-te
duče
k-ule=caj
boy-
erg
domestic_animal-
pl
pasture.
loc
(
lat
)
drive.
ipfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is driving the cattle to the pasture.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
k'aˤli
b-aˤž-un
boy-
erg
branch
n
-bend.
pfv
(
caus
)-
pret
(3)
‘The boy bent the branch.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_INTER(LAT)
X: ERG
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
zumra-cːe
ag-ib
boy-
erg
neighbor-
inter
(
lat
)
say.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy told his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
žuz
nuqba-cːe-b
b-uc-ible=caj
boy-
erg
book
hand.
pl
.
obl
-
inter
-
n
(
ess
)
n
-keep.
pfv
-
cnv
.
pret
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is holding a book in his hands.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_POST
X: NOM
Y: POST
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-gitːe
hitːe
h-eʁ-ib
boy
neighbor-
post
post
(after)
up
-(
m
)reach.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy caught up with his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
rursːi-li
q'ʷaˤl
b-ircː-ib
girl-
erg
cow
n
-milk.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The girl milked the cow.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_LOC(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: LOC(LAT)
Locus: Y
rursːi
dum-le
ke-r-eʁ-ib
girl
edge-
loc
(
lat
)
down-
f
-reach.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The girl reached the bank.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_INTER(LAT)
X: ERG
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
rursːi-li
lac-li-cːe
ha-ka-ačː-ib
girl-
erg
wall-
obl
-
inter
(
lat
)
up
-
down
-hit.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The girl touched the wall.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
rursːi-cːala
w-irħ-ule=caj
boy
girl-
com
m
-fight.
pfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is fighting with a girl.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
rursːi-cːala
juldaš
w-iχ-ub
boy
girl-
com
friend
m
-be.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy is friends with the girl.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER.ABL.DOWN
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ABL.DOWN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
rursːi-ge-rka
pikri
w-ik'-ule=caj
boy
girl-
super
-
abl
.
down
thought
m
-say-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is thinking about the girl.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
hinci
b-erk-un
boy-
erg
apple
n
-eat.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy ate an apple.’
Note: Co-exists with an antipassive (NOM_INST) pattern.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
rursːi-li
dig
b-erc'-ib
girl-
erg
meat
n
-roast.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The girl roasted the meat.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
rursːi
durħaˤ-ge
er-le=cari
girl
boy-
super
(
lat
)
look-
adv
=
cop
:
f
(3)
‘The girl is waiting for the boy.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
rursːi-j
ca=ra
x:uni
leb-ni
qum
k-art-ur
girl-
dat
one-
add
road
cop
.
exst
.
n
-
msd
mind
down
-put-
pret
(3)
‘The girl forgot about the other road.’
Note: The argument in the nominative is a nominalization (masdar).
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
ERG_INTER(LAT)
X: ERG
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
zumra-cːe
weh
ag-ib
boy-
erg
neighbor-
inter
(
lat
)
call
say.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy called his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-cːala
taˤniš
w-iχ-ub
boy
neighbor-
com
familiar
m
-be.
ipfv
-
pret
‘The boy got to know his neighbor a year ago.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
zumra
r-alχ-a
boy-
dat
neighbor
f
-know.
ipfv
-3
hab
.
prs
‘The boy knows his (female) neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
tːam
b-urq-ule=caj
boy-
erg
drum
n
-hit.
ipfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is playing the drum.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_ANTE.ABL.DOWN
X: NOM
Y: ANTE.ABL.DOWN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-sa-rka
gu-rka-ls-unne=caj
boy
neighbor-
ante
-
abl
.
down
sub
-
abl
.
down
-(
m
)lie.
ipfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy avoids his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
guta
b-arq'-ib
boy-
erg
chair
n
-do.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy made a chair.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
GEN_NOM
X: GEN
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-la
hanna
qali
le-b
boy-
gen
now
home
cop
.
exst
-
n
‘The boy now has a house.’
Note: NP in the genitive is arguably a clause-level dependent. Existential predicate.
Valency pattern:
NOM_POST
X: NOM
Y: POST
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
umxːu-gitːe
hitːe
w-ax-ule=caj
boy
key-
post
post
(after)
m
-walk-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is looking for his key.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
uncːa
šir-li
d-ač-ib
boy-
erg
door
color-
erg
npl
-paint.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy painted the door.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
χːʷe
durħaˤ-ge
q'ac'
b-ikː-un
dog
boy-
super
(
lat
)
id
.bite
n
-bite.
pfv
.
pret
(3)
‘A dog bit the boy.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_INTER.ABL.DOWN
X: NOM
Y: INTER.ABL.DOWN
Locus: Y
zumra
qali-cːe-rka
uq-un
neighbor
home-
inter
-
abl
.
down
(
m
)move.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The neighbor lost his house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
kːata-li
waca
b-urc-ule=cabi
cat-
erg
mouse
n
-catch.
ipfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
n
(3)
‘The cat is trying to catch the mouse.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
dirxːa
b-aˤč-un
boy-
erg
stick
n
-break.
pfv
(
caus
)-
pret
(3)
‘The boy broke a stick.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
baba
r-ikː-u
boy-
dat
mother
f
-love-3
hab
.
prs
‘The boy loves his mother.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
naˤq
hak'
b-arq'-ib
boy-
erg
hand
id
.swing
n
-do.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy is waving his hand.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
mašin-ni-ge
xul
ik'-ule caj
boy
car-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
hope
(
m
)say-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is dreaming of a new car.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
rursːi-li
k'uču
b-irc-ib
girl-
erg
cup
n
-wash.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The girl washed the cup.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
rursːi-li
awa
aχ-ur
girl-
erg
dress
wear.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The girl put on her dress.’
Valency pattern:
SUPER(LAT)_NOM(NO.AGR)
X: SUPER(LAT)
Y: NOM(NO.AGR)
Locus: XY
ħaˤjgi-ge
kalpatan
b-ik'ʷ-ar
this.
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
pliers
hpl
-say-3
hab
.
prs
‘This is called pliers.’
Note: Transimpersonal construction, the verb indexed the (unnamed) human ‘sayers’.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
zumra-li
durħaˤ
w-ebg-ub
neighbor-
erg
boy
m
-beat.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The neighbor punished his son.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
χʷe
durħaˤ-ge
če-b-ič-ib
dog
boy-
super
(
lat
)
on
-
n
-fall.
pfv
-
pret
‘A dog attacked the boy.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_ERG
X: NOM
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
badra
hin-ni
b-ic'-ib
bucket
water-
erg
n
-fill.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The bucket filled with water.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
umxːu
b-arčː-ib
boy-
erg
key
n
-find.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy found his key.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
wec'al
qːuruš
ʡaˤ-b-eʁ-a-j
boy-
dat
ten
ruble
neg
-
n
-be_enough.
pfv
-
pret
.
neg
-3
‘The boy is ten roubles short.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
zumra
če-r-ag-i=ra
ʡaˤ-r-ikː-u
boy-
dat
neighbor
on
-
f
-see.
pfv
-
inf
=
add
neg
-
f
-like-
hab
.
prs
3
‘The boy hates his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
mašin
b-ikː-u
boy-
dat
car
n
-like-
hab
.
prs
3
‘The boy likes the car.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
mašin
ʡaˤni-le=cabi
boy-
dat
car
need-
adv
=
cop
:
n
(3)
‘The boy needs a car.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
qali
lucra-li
alaw
b-uc-ib
home
wall.
pl
.
obl
-
erg
around
n
-catch.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘Walls surround the house.’
Valency pattern:
GEN_NOM
X: GEN
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-la
hanna
wec'al
qːuruš
k-alg-un
boy-
gen
now
ten
money
down-stay.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy has now ten roubles left.’
Note: NP in the genitive is arguably a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
ERG_INTER(LAT)
X: ERG
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
tatːi-cːe
žabaw
b-ičː-ib
boy-
erg
father-
inter
(
lat
)
answer
n
-give.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy answered his father.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
taq'a
abšː-ib
boy-
erg
pot
open.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy opened a can.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_COMP
X: NOM
Y: COMP
Locus: Y
dila
mašin
ela=lerka
b-ik'ar-le=cabi
1.
gen
car
2.
gen
=
comp
n
-different-
adv
=
cop
:
n
‘My car is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NOM_GEN
X: NOM
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
rus:i-la
hela
ka-jč-ib
boy
girl-
gen
behind
down-fall.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy fell behind the girl.’
Note: NP in the genitive is arguably a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
zumra-li
qu
b-ac-un
neighbor-
erg
field
n
-plough.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy ploughed the field.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
nuqba-cːe-rka
nabt-la
kːʷaˤʡ
leb
hand.
pl
.
obl
-
inter
-
abl
:
down
oil-
gen
smell
cop
.
exst
:
n
(3)
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.
Valency pattern:
NOM_LOC.ABL.DOWN
X: NOM
Y: LOC.ABL.DOWN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
xːun-ne-rka
četːe
ka-uq-un
boy
road-
loc
-
abl
.
down
across
down
-(
m
)move.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy crossed the road.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
dalaj
b-elč'-un
boy-
erg
song
n
-read.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy sang a song.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
kaʁar
b-elk'-un
boy-
erg
letter
n
-write.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy wrote a letter.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
nig
d-erčːib
boy-
erg
milk
npl
-drink.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy drank the milk.’
Note: Co-exists with an antipassive (NOM_INST) pattern.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
ʁurʁašin
b-ac'-ib
boy-
erg
lead
n
-melt.
pfv
(
caus
)-
pret
(3)
‘The boy melted a piece of lead.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
šːi
b-al
b-irk-ule=cabi
boy-
dat
village
n
-suitable
n
-get.
pfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
n
(3)
‘The village suits the boy well.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
šːi
b-arx
b-at-ur
boy-
erg
village
n
-straight
n
-leave.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy left his native village.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
t'amsa-li
libil
musːa
b-uc-ible=cabi
carpet-
erg
all:
n
place
n
-take.
pfv
-
cnv
.
pret
=
cop
:
n
(3)
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
šːi
han=leb-ala
boy-
dat
village
mind=
cop
.
exst
:
n
-3
‘The boy remembers the village well.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
šːi-j
kumek
b-arq'-ib
boy-
erg
village-
dat
help
n
-do.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy helped the village.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
ʡurus
mec
irʁ-u
boy-
dat
r
ussian
language
understand.
ipfv
-3
hab
.
prs
‘The boy understands Russian.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_INTER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
q'arqːa
naˤq-li-cːe
ačː-ib
stone
hand-
obl
-
inter
(
lat
)
get/hit.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The stone hit the hand.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_ERG
X: ERG
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
dis-li
t'ul
b-alʁ-un
boy-
erg
knife-
erg
finger
n
-cut.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy cut his finger with the knife.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_INTER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: INTER(LAT)
Locus: Y
cancːi
waˤšaˤw-li-cːe
hitːe
b-asː-un
thorn
trousers-
obl
-
inter
(
lat
)
post
(after)
n
-cling.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘A thorn stuck to the trousers.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUB.ESS
X: NOM
Y: SUB.ESS
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
tatːi-gu-w
gu-w-w-iχ-ub
boy
father-
sub
-
m
.
ess
sub
-
m
.
ess
-
m
-be.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy lost to his father.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_ERG
X: NOM
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
χabar-li
durħaˤ
raˤzi
w-iχ-ub
news-
erg
boy
happy
m
-be.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy was glad about the news.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-сːala
ʁaj
w-ik'-ule=caj
boy
neighbor-
com
speech
m
-say-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is speaking with his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
GEN_NOM
X: GEN
Y: NOM
Locus: X
zumra-la
durħaˤ
h-ak'-ub
neighbor-
gen
boy
up
-be_born.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The neighbor gave birth to a son.’
Note: NP in the genitive is arguably a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
k'uč'u
kʷer-k-aq'-ur
boy-
erg
cup
from.hand-
down
-pour.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy dropped the glass.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
zumra
šːi-la
χʷal-il=(caj)
neighbor
village-
gen
big-
atr
.
cntrs
=(
cop
.
m
)
‘The neighbor runs the village.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed as an NP-internal modifier.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER.ABL.DOWN
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ABL.DOWN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
urči-ge-rka
če-rka-uq-un
boy
horse-
super
-
abl
.
down
on
-
abl
.
down
-(
m
)move.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy got down from the horse.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
teliwizur-li-ge
legu
ka-q-ible=caj
boy
tv-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
ear
down
-hang.
pfv
-
cnv
.
pret
=
cop
:
m
.3
‘The boy is listening to the tv.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
gule
tatːi-ge
legu
iq-ar
child.
pl
father-
super
(
lat
)
ear
down
-hang.
ipfv
-3
hab
.
prs
‘The children obey their father.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
t'ama
b-aq'-ib
boy-
dat
sound
n
-hear.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy hears the noise.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_INTER.ESS
X: NOM
Y: INTER.ESS
Locus: Y
waza
nig-li-cːe-b
b-arχa
b-iχ-ub
honey
milk-
obl
-
inter
-
n
(
ess
)
n
-mix
n
-be.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ERG_SUPER(LAT)
X: ERG
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
qːir-ma-ge
er-urk'-ule=caj
boy-
erg
cloud-
pl
.
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
look-(
m
)leave.
pfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is looking at the clouds.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
awa
če-rka-b-at-ur
boy-
erg
shirt
on
.
abl
-
down
-
n
-leave.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy took off his shirt.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
tatːi
muger
w-ic:-ur
boy-
dat
father
dream
m
-appear.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy has dreamed about his father.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
zumra
durħaˤ-cːala
q'abul
w-ič-ib
neighbor
boy-
com
agreement
m
-fall.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The neighbor agreed with the boy.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_COM
X: NOM
Y: COM
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-cːala
č'aˤp'
uq-un
boy
neighbor-
com
dispute
(
m
)move.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy had a quarrel with his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_ERG
X: NOM
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
ʡuba-la
killa
ʁajal
qːuruš-li=cab=de
potato.
pl
.
obl
-
gen
kilo
twenty
ruble-
erg
=
cop
:
n
(3)=
pst
‘One kilo of potatoes costs twenty roubles.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
χʷe-j
tupang
ix-ub
boy-
erg
dog-
dat
gun
throw.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy shot at the dog.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
čaˤj-li-cːe
mizi-dix
k-aq'-ur
boy-
erg
tea-
obl
-
inter
(
lat
)
sweet-
nmlz
down
-pour.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy poured the sugar into the cup.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
umxne
d-it-aq-ib
boy-
erg
key.
pl
npl
-thither-go_through.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy lost his keys.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_ERG
X: NOM
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
hin-ni
tːalla
gu-b-uqː-ib
water-
erg
plank
sub
-
n
-carry.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The log sank in the water.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
žibin
k-aq'-ur
boy-
erg
mosquito
down
-kill.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy killed a mosquito.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
q'ʷaˤl-li-j
b-aˤq-ib
boy-
erg
cow-
obl
-
dat
n
-hit.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy hit the cow.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_DAT
X: ERG
Y: DAT
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
baba-j
paj
ag-ib
boy-
erg
mother-
dat
kiss
say.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy kissed his mother.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
žuz
b-elč'-un
boy-
erg
book
n
-read.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy read the book.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
kːamuli
šiš
b-arq'-ib
boy-
erg
toe
id
.shift
n
-do.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy moved his toe.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_GEN
X: ERG
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li
zumra-la
ħurmat
b-irq'-u
boy-
erg
neighbor-
gen
respect
n
-do.
ipfv
-3
hab
.
prs
.
tr
‘The boy respects his neighbor.’
Note: NP in the genitive is arguably a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
GEN_SUPER(LAT)
X: GEN
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: XY
durħaˤ-la
waˤ-ce
q'ʷaˤʡ-li-ge
urk'i
čːar-d-ik'ʷ-ar
boy-
gen
bad-
atr
smell-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
heart
back-
npl
-say-3
hab
.
prs
‘The boy is squeamish about the smell.’
Note: NP in the genitive is arguably a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER.ESS
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ESS
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li-ge-w
tatːi
raˤzi-le=caj
boy-
obl
-
super
-
m
.
ess
father
happy-
adv
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The father is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER.ESS
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ESS
Locus: Y
durħaˤ-li-ge-w
tatːi
če-w-w-iχː-uˤle=caj
boy-
obl
-
super
-
m
.
ess
father
on
-
m
.
ess
-
m
-keep.
ipfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The father trusts his son.’
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
tatːi
jazuq
w-ilcː-unne=caj
boy-
dat
father
poor
m
-appear.
pfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy sympathises with his father.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER.ESS
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ESS
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-ge-w
waˤħaˤl-le=caj
boy
neighbor-
super
-
m
.
ess
jealous-
adv
-
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy envies his neighbor.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-ge
q'uc'-le=caj
boy
neighbor-
super
(
lat
)
angry-
adv
=
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy is angry with his neighbor.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER.ESS
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ESS
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
xunnela-ge-w
tamaša
w-iχ-ub
boy
gift-
super
-
m
.
ess
amazing
m
-be.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy was surprised at this gift.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
čaˤj
d-ikː-u
boy-
dat
tea
npl
-like-
hab
.
prs
3
‘The boy loves tea.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
DAT_NOM
X: DAT
Y: NOM
Locus: X
durħaˤ-j
čaˤj
d-ikː-ule=caj
boy-
dat
tea
npl
-like-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
.
m
‘The boy wants tea.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-ge
q'uc'-le=caj
boy
neighbor-
super
(
lat
)
angry-
adv
-
cop
:
m
(3)
‘The boy holds a grudge against his neighbor.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER(LAT)
X: NOM
Y: SUPER(LAT)
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
zumra-ge
q'uc'
w-iχ-ub
boy
neighbor-
super
(
lat
)
angry
m
-be.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy took offence at his neighbor.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: NOM
Locus: TR
durħaˤ-li
zumra
pašman
w-arq'-ib
boy-
erg
neighbor
sad
m
-do.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy greatly upset his neighbor.’
Valency pattern:
NOM_SUPER.ESS
X: NOM
Y: SUPER.ESS
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
šahar-li-ge-w
tamaša
w-iχ-ub
boy
city-
obl
-
super
-
m
.
ess
amazing
m
-be.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy was impressed by this town.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
NOM_ERG
X: NOM
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
waˤ-ce
χabar-li
w-amq'-ur
boy
bad-
atr
news-
erg
m
-get_upset.
pfv
-
pret
(3)
‘The boy got upset because of bad news.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
*
*
*
Note: No satisfactory translation has been obtained.
Valency pattern:
NOM_ANTE.ABL.DOWN
X: NOM
Y: ANTE.ABL.DOWN
Locus: Y
durħaˤ
tatːi-sa-rka
uruc
w-ik'-ule=caj
boy
father-
ante
-
abl
.
down
shame
m
-say.
pfv
-
cnv
.
prog
=
cop
.
m
(3)
‘The boy is embarrased about his father.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.