Dargwa (Itsari)
Contributed by Rasul Mutalov
The data were gathered in 2018 and then revised in 2024 and 2025. The Russian version of the questionnaire was used for elicitation. Nina Sumbatova has greatly contributed to the interlinearization and interpretation of the data.
How to cite
Mutalov, Rasul. 2023. Bivalent patterns in Dargwa (Itsari).
In: Say, Sergey (ed.). BivalTyp: Typological database of bivalent verbs and their encoding frames.
(Data first published on November 11, 2023;
last revised on February 16, 2025.) (Available online at https://bivaltyp.info ,
Accessed on .)
Basic info
Coordinates: 42.0, 47.57 .
Genealogy (as given in WALS ). Family: Nakh-Daghestanian, genus: Dargwic.
Macro-area: West Asia and the Caucasus.
Grammar notes
Basic clause structure and the transitive construction
Like other languages of the Nakh-Dagestanian family, Itsari Dargwa is a morphologically ergative language, although many syntactic processes follow the nominative-accusative pattern. It is a basically left-branching language with relatively free word order. Itsari shows rich agreement both in gender/number (nominal class) and person. Itsari Dargwa exhibits rich agglutinative morphology both in nominal and verbal domain.
Case system
The grammatical cases include the absolutive, ergative, genitive, comitative, contentive, and instrumental. A remarkable feature of the Itsari Dargwa case system is the absence of a dedicated dative case. The corresponding functions are performed by the superlative case (see below). The basic markers of grammatical cases are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Markers of grammatical cases in Itsari Dargwa
case
marker
Absolutive
unmarked
Ergative
-li /-lli
Genitive
-la /-lla
Comitative
-cːilli
Contentive
-čilla
Instrumental
-ibli
The locative (spatial) forms express two spatial categories: localization and orientation. Itsari has five localizations and four orientations, whose combinations result in 20 locative case forms. The localization markers are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Localization markers in Itsari Dargwa
localization
marker
SUPER ‘on’
-j
SUB ‘under’
-gu
ANTE ‘in front of’
-sa
POST ‘behind’
-ha
IN ‘inside’
-cːi (or irregular)
The four orientations include lative (unmarked), essive, elative and directional (allative). When unaccompanied by an orientation marker, locative forms denote the motion towards a location. The essive orientation (stative position) is marked by gender agreement suffix, which follows the localization morpheme. The elative orientation (motion from the object) is expressed by adding the suffix -r (-r-tːal /-r-tːalli , in free variation); the directional orientation means motion towards the object without reaching it and is expressed by the combination of a gender marker and the suffix -al /-alli .
Verb lemmas
Itsari Dargwa does not have infinitive forms. The typical functions of the infinitive are performed by the subjunctive forms, which inflect for person/number. For citation, we use the 3rd person subjunctive forms (marked by -araj /-anaj in the intransitive verbs, -uj in the transitive verbs). For the roots that have aspectual pairs we give the aspectual variant that is used in the corresponding example. Similarly, the verbs that agree in gender are cited with the gender marker that is attested in the example. The gender markers are separated by the equality sign (‘=’); other morphemic breaks are indicated by a hyphen.
Glossing abbreviations
ABS — absolutive; ADV — adverbializer; ANTE — localization ‘in front of’; AOR — aorist; ATR — attributive; CAUS — causative; COM — comitative; CONT — contentive; CONV — converb; COP — copula; DOWN — preverb ‘down’; ELAT — elative; ERG — ergative; ESS — essive; EXIST — existential copula; F — feminine; GEN — genitive; HAB — habitual; ILL — illative; INSIDE — preverb ‘inside’; IPF — imperfective; LV — light verb; M — masculine; N — neuter; NEG — negative; NPL — non-human plural; OBL — oblique; ON — preverb ‘on’; OUTSIDE — preverb ‘outside’; PF — perfective; PL — plural; PN — person name; POST — localization ‘behind’; PRS — present; SUB — localization ‘under’; SUBJ — subjunctive; SUPLAT — superlative; UNDER — preverb ‘under’; UP — preverb ‘up’.
Data
Subset examples by valency pattern
Any
NA
ABS_akkwal
ABS_ANTE.ELAT
ABS_bahandan
ABS_ELAT
ABS_ERG
ABS_GEN
ABS_GENtesal
ABS_ILL
ABS_ILL.COM
ABS_ILL.ELAT
ABS_POST
ABS_POST.ELAT
ABS_SUB
ABS_SUPLAT
ABS_SUPLAT.CONT
ABS_SUPLATchi
ERG_GEN
ERG_ILL
ERG_SUPLAT
GEN_ABS
GEN_SUPLAT
POSTtti_GEN
SUPLAT_ABS
SUPLAT_ABS(NO.AGR)
SUPLAT_POST.ELAT
SUPLAT_SUPLAT.CONT
TR
Subset examples by locus
Any
*
TR
X
XY
Y
Valency pattern:
GEN_ABS
X: GEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-la
bek'
icː-a=ca-b
pn
-
gen
head(
abs
)
ache.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam has a headache.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
ABS_GEN
X: ABS
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam
beža-la
w-ih-ub=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
flu-
gen
m
-become.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam has the flu.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ANTE.ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ANTE.ELAT
Locus: Y
Islam
χːʷe-l-sa-r
uruχː-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
dog-
obl
-
ante
-
el
fear-(
m
)
lv
.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is afraid of the dog.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
qːarqːa
ix-ub
pn
-
erg
stone(
abs
)
throw.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam threw a stone.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
arc
či-hatː-iq-a=ca-d
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
money(
abs
)
on
-
up
-suffice.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
npl
‘Islam has enough money.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-j
meš-ci=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
similar-
atr
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam resembles Nadir.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-j
či-w-iχː-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
on
-
m
-believe.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam believes Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
žuz
hatː-asː-ib
pn
-
erg
book(
abs
)
up
-take.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam took a book.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
qal
či-b-ig-a=ca-b
pn
-
erg
house(
abs
)
on
-
n
-see.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam sees a house.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_SUPLAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
d-eːrč'-ib
dus-m-a-lli
ʕaˤq'lu-li-j
asar
b-irq'-u
npl
-pass.
pfv
-
aor
year-
pl
-
obl
-
erg
mind-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
influence(
abs
)
n
-make.
ipfv
-
prs
.
hab
‘The years one has lived affect one’s mind.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
Nadir
sːukː-sa-w-ič-ib
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
pn
(
abs
)
encounter-
ante
-
m
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam encountered Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ILL
X: ABS
Y: ILL
Locus: Y
Islam
qil
kːʷi-ha-wq-un
pn
(
abs
)
house.
in
(
lat
)
inside
-
up
-(
m
)go.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam entered the house.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ELAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-r
či-w-w-ih-ub
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-(
super
)
el
on
-
m
-
m
-be.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam beat Nadir.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ELAT
Locus: Y
Islam
qili-rtːal
tːura-wq-un
pn
(
abs
)
house.
in
-
el
outside
-(
m
)go.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam went out of the house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
q'ʷaˤl
tːura-ʕaˤʁ-ib
pn
-
erg
cow(
abs
)
outside
-drive.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam is driving the cow.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
q'aˤli
b-aˤlč'-aq-un
pn
-
erg
branch(
abs
)
n
-bend.
pfv
-
caus
-
aor
‘Islam bent the branch.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_ILL
X: ERG
Y: ILL
Locus: Y
Islam-il
Nadir-ri-cːi
b-urs-ib
pn
-
erg
pn
-
obl
-
in
(
lat
)
n
-tell.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam told Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
žuz
kʷi-b-uc-ib=ca-b
pn
-
erg
book(
abs
)
in
.
hands
-
n
-hold.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam is holding a book.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_POST
X: ABS
Y: POST
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-reh
tːi-w-eːʁ-ib
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
+
post
behind
-
m
-catch_up.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam caught up with Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
q'ʷaˤl
b-ircː-ib
pn
-
erg
cow(
abs
)
n
-milk.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam milked the cow.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_POST
X: ABS
Y: POST
Locus: Y
Islam
dum-leh
w-eːʁ-ib
pn
(
abs
)
edge-
obl
+
post
m
-reach-
aor
‘Islam reached the bank.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_POST
X: ABS
Y: POST
Locus: Y
Islam
lac-leh
tːi-w-w-aˤq-ib
pn
(
abs
)
wall-
obl
+
post
behind
-
m
-
m
-touch.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam touched the wall.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ILL.COM
X: ABS
Y: ILL.COM
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-cːilli
he-jč-ib=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
com
up
-(
m
)fight.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is fighting with Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_GEN
X: ABS
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ra
juldaš
ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
gen
friend(
abs
)
cop
-
m
‘Islam is friends with Nadir.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT.CONT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT.CONT
Locus: Y
Islam
Madina-li-jčilla
pikri-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
cont
thought-(
m
)
lv
.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is thinking about Madina.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
hinci
b-erk-un
pn
-
erg
apple(
abs
)
n
-eat.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam ate an apple.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
baliqː
b-erc'-ib
pn
-
erg
fish(
abs
)
n
-fry.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam fried the fish.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_POST
X: ABS
Y: POST
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-reh
tːi-ke-jž-ib=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
+
post
behind
-
down
-(
m
)wait.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is waiting for Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_SUPLAT.CONT
X: SUPLAT
Y: SUPLAT.CONT
Locus: XY
Islam-li-j
cara
xːun-ni-jčilla
qum-eːrt-ur
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
other
road-
obl
-
cont
forget-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam forgot about the other road.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ILL.ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ILL.ELAT
Locus: Y
ʕaˤq'lu
ʕuˤmru-la
dus-m-a-cːi-r
b-ikːʷ-il=ca-b
mind(
abs
)
life-
gen
year-
pl
-
obl
-
in
-
el
n
-want.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
n
‘Memory depends on age.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_ILL
X: ERG
Y: ILL
Locus: Y
Islam-il
Nadir-ri-cːi
waˤħ-b-erč'-ib
pn
-
erg
pn
-
obl
-
in
(
lat
)
call-
n
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam called Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ILL.COM
X: ABS
Y: ILL.COM
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-cːilli
ca
dusː
sar
taˤniš-ih-ub
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
com
one
year-
abs
before
acquaintance-(
m
)
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam got to know Nadir a year ago.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
Nadir
uχː-u
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
pn
(
abs
)
(
m
)know.
ipfv
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam knows Nadir.’
Note: Irregular verb. Citation form is the present tense form.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
gitara
b-urq-aˤ=ca-b
pn
-
erg
guitar(
abs
)
n
-play.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam is playing the guitar.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ANTE.ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ANTE.ELAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-sa-r
gu-r-irxː-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
ante
-
el
sub
-
el
-(
m
)hide.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam avoids Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
bomba
b-aˤrq'-ib
pn
-
erg
bomb(
abs
)
n
-make.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam made a bomb.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLATchi
X: ABS
Y: SUPLATchi
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-j
či-w
dukalt'-n-a-lli
w-irq'-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
on
-
m
mockery-
pl
-
obl
-
erg
m
-do.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is making fun of Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
GEN_ABS
X: GEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-la
mašin
te-b
pn
-
gen
car(
abs
)
exist
-
n
‘Islam has a car.’
Note: Non-verbal (existential) predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
ABS_POST.ELAT
X: ABS
Y: POST.ELAT
Locus: Y
Islam
umx-n-a-ha-r
ubc'-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
key-
pl
-
obl
-
post
-
el
look_for.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is looking for his keys.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
χːaˤr
b-erxː-ur
pn
-
erg
fence(
abs
)
n
-paint.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam painted the fence.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam-li-j
χːʷe
q'ac'-či-b-ič-ib
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
dog(
abs
)
bite-
on
-
n
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘A dog bit Islam.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_akkwal
X: ABS
Y: akkwal
Locus: Y
Islam
qal
akːʷ-al
katː-elg-un
pn
(
abs
)
house(
abs
)
neg
.
cop
-
adv
down
-remain.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam lost his house.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
mazi
b-urc-a=ca-b
pn
-
erg
cat(
abs
)
n
-catch.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam is trying to catch the cat.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
dirxːa
b-elq'-un
pn
-
erg
stick(
abs
)
n
-break.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam broke a stick.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-il
Madina
gap-r-irq'-a=ca-r
pn
-
erg
pn
(
abs
)
praise-
f
-do.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
f
‘Islam is praising Madina.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
Madina
r-ikːʷ-il=ca-r
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
pn
(
abs
)
f
-want.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
f
‘Islam loves Madina.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ERG
X: ABS
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
Islam
deškːan-ni
hak'-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
handkerchief-
erg
wave-(
m
)
lv
.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is waving a handkerchief.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT.CONT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT.CONT
Locus: Y
Islam
mašin-ni-jčilla
pikri-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
car-
obl
-
cont
thought-(
m
)
lv
.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is dreaming of a car.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
baʁdaʁ
b-irc-ib
pn
-
erg
cup(
abs
)
n
-wash.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam washed the cup.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
wačag
či-ah-ur
pn
-
erg
trousers(
abs
)
on
-put_on.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam put on his trousers.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS(NO.AGR)
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS(NO.AGR)
Locus: XY
iž
cik'al-li-j
kompas
b-ik'ʷ-ar
this
thing-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
compass(
abs
)
n
-say.
ipfv
-
prs
.
hab
‘This thing is called a compass.’
Note: Transimpersonal construction.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-il
durħuˤ
w-it-ib
pn
-
erg
boy(
abs
)
m
-beat.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam beat his son.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
sːika
baliqːči-li-j
či-b-u:q-un
bear(
abs
)
fisherman-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
on
-
n
-attack.
pfv
-
aor
‘A bear attacked a fisherman.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_GEN
X: ABS
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
badra
hin-na
b-ic'-ib
bucket(
abs
)
water-
gen
n
-fill.
pfv
-
aor
‘The bucket filled with water.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
umx-ni
d-arčː-ib
pn
-
erg
key-
pl
npl
-find.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam found his keys.’
Valency pattern:
GEN_ABS
X: GEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-la
ca
manat
či-hatː-iq-a-tːi
akːu
pn
-
gen
one(
abs
)
manat(
abs
)
on
-
up
-suffice.
ipfv
-
prs
-
cvb
neg
.
cop
‘Islam is one manat short.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
Nadir
či-w-ag-uj
e-jčː-aq-u
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
pn
(
abs
)
on
-
m
-see.
pfv
-
subj
.3
neg
-(
m
)want.
ipfv
-
caus
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam hates Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
iž
kːurti
b-ičː-aq-u
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
this(
abs
)
shirt(
abs
)
n
-want.
ipfv
-
caus
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam likes this shirt.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
arc
ħaˤžat-d-ič-ib=ca-d
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
money(
abs
)
need-
npl
-
lv
.
pfv
=
cop
-
npl
‘Islam needs money.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
šahar
lic-r-a-lli
alawg-b-aˤrq'-ib=ca-b
town(
abs
)
wall-
pl
-
obl
-
erg
around-
n
-do.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
n
‘Walls surround the city.’
Valency pattern:
GEN_ABS
X: GEN
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-la
wec'
dollar
d-igal
pn
-
gen
ten
dollar(
abs
)
npl
-remain.
ipfv
.
prs
‘Islam has ten dollars left.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Irregular verb. Citation form is the present tense form.
Valency pattern:
ERG_SUPLAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il
učitil-li-j
žawab
b-iːčː-ib
pn
-
erg
teacher-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
answer(
abs
)
n
-give.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam answered the teacher.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
pːank'a
ač-b-aˤrq'-ib
pn
-
erg
can(
abs
)
open-
n
-do.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam opened a can.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ELAT
Locus: Y
di-la
kːurti
i-la-ci-li-r
dik'ar-ci
ca-b
i
-
gen
shirt(
abs
)
you-
gen
-
atr
-
obl
-(
super
)
el
different-
atr
cop
-
n
‘My shirt is different from yours.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
ABS_ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ELAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-r
helga-ič-ib
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-(
super
)
el
fall_behind-(
m
)
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam fell behind Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
qu
b-alc-a=ca-b
pn
-
erg
field(
abs
)
n
-plough.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam is ploughing the field.’
Valency pattern:
POSTtti_GEN
X: POSTtti
Y: GEN
Locus: XY
di-la
naˤqː-b-a-ha
tːi-b
binzin-na
kːʷaˤʕ
le-b
i
-
gen
hand-
pl
-
obl
-
post
behind
-
n
gasoline-
gen
smell(
abs
)
exist
-
n
‘My hands smell of gasoline.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
ABS_GENtesal
X: ABS
Y: GENtesal
Locus: Y
Islam
xːun-na
te-šːal
u:q-un
pn
(
abs
)
road-
gen
that-side
(
m
)cross.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam crossed the road.’
Note: In this construction, "tešːal" functions as a postposition.
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
čːakːʷa
dalaj
b-elč'-un
pn
-
erg
beautiful
song(
abs
)
n
-sing.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam sang a beautiful song.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
kaʁar
b-elk'-un
pn
-
erg
letter(
abs
)
n
-write.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam wrote a letter.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
nejg
d-erčː-ib
pn
-
erg
milk(
abs
)
npl
-drink.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam drank the milk.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
ʁurʁašin-na
but'a
b-ac'-aq-ib
pn
-
erg
lead-
gen
piece(
abs
)
n
-melt.
pfv
-
caus
-
aor
‘Islam melted a piece of lead.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
hejž
irži
di-la
agʷa-li-j
b-al-b-irk-a=ca-b
this(
abs
)
belt(
abs
)
i
-
gen
dress-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
n
-together-
n
-fall.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
n
‘This belt goes well with my dress.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
cin-na
šahar
gu-b-b-at-ur
pn
-
erg
self-
gen
town(
abs
)
sub
-
n
-
n
-leave.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam left his native city.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
t'amsː-il
le<b>il
č'aˤbar
b-uc-ib=ca-b
carpet-
erg
all<
n
>
floor(
abs
)
n
-catch.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
n
‘The carpet covers the whole floor.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
qal
ʕaˤħ-il
han-b-ig-al
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
house(
abs
)
good-
adv
remember-
n
-
lv
.
ipfv
-
prs
‘Islam remembers the house well.’
Note: Irregular verb. Citation form is the present tense form.
Valency pattern:
ERG_SUPLAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il
Nadir-ri-j
kumek
b-aˤrq'-ib
pn
-
erg
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
help(
abs
)
n
-do.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam helped Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
francuz-a-lla
ʁaj
irʁ-a=ca-d
pn
-
erg
f
renchman-
obl
-
gen
language(
abs
)
understand.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
npl
‘Islam understands French.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
qal-li-j
c'a
či-ka-tː-aˤq-ib
house-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
fire(
abs
)
on
-
down
-
npl
-hit-
aor
‘Lightning struck the house.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-la
daˤʕ
mut'rusː-il
ka-tː-ičː-ib
pn
-
gen
face(
abs
)
razor-
erg
on
-
npl
-cut.
pfv
-
aor
‘The razor cut Islam’s face.’
Note: Not included in the database because the translation deviates too far from the stimulus sentence.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
istːikan
ust'ul-li-j
či-ka-b-asː-un=ca-b
glass(
abs
)
table-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
on
-
down
-
n
-smear.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
n
‘The glass got stuck to the table.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ELAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-r
gu-w-w-ih-ub
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-(
super
)
el
sub
-
m
-
m
-be-
aor
‘Islam lost to Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
kaʁar-ri-j
razij-w-ih-ub
pn
(
abs
)
letter-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
joy-
m
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam was glad about the letter.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ILL.COM
X: ABS
Y: ILL.COM
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-cːilli
ʁaj-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
com
conversation-(
m
)
lv
.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is speaking with Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Madina-l
durħuˤ
w-aˤrq'-ib
pn
-
erg
son(
abs
)
m
-make.
pfv
-
aor
‘Madina gave birth to a son.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
istːikan
kʷi-r-b-ič-aˤq-ib
pn
-
erg
glass(
abs
)
in
.
hands
-
el
-
n
-fall.
pfv
-
caus
-
aor
‘Islam dropped the glass.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_GEN
X: ABS
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam
nišːa-la
šːi-la
χːula-ci
ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
we-
gen
village-
gen
big-
atr
cop
-
m
‘Islam runs our village.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_POST.ELAT
X: SUPLAT
Y: POST.ELAT
Locus: XY
Islam-li-j
Madina-le-he-r
b-et'-ib=ca-b
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
pn
-
obl
-
post
-
el
n
-miss.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam misses Madina.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_POST
X: ABS
Y: POST
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-reh
tːi-w-ax-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
+
post
behind
-
m
-go.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam follows Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ELAT
X: ABS
Y: ELAT
Locus: Y
Islam
jaˤbu-li-r
či-r-ka-wq-un
pn
(
abs
)
horse-
obl
-
el
on
-
el
-
down
-(
m
)climb.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam got down from the horse.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
radiwa-li-j
gu-lik'-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
radio-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
under
-listen.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is listening to radio.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
waba-j
gu-lik'-an
pn
(
abs
)
mother-
super
(
lat
)
under
-listen.
ipfv
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam always listens to his mother.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_GEN
X: ERG
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam-il
maq'am-t-a-lla
deh
b-iq'-a=ca-b
pn
-
erg
tune-
pl
-
obl
-
gen
sound(
abs
)
n
-hear.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam hears the music.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
ABS_ILL.COM
X: ABS
Y: ILL.COM
Locus: Y
waza
nejg-il-cːilli
ʁudur-ha-b-ič-ib
honey(
abs
)
milk-
obl
-
com
mix-
up
-
n
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘The honey got mixed with milk.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
qːir-b-a-j
war-ih-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
cloud-
pl
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
look-(
m
)
lv
.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is looking at the clouds.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
kːurtːi
či-r-ix-ub
pn
-
erg
shirt(
abs
)
on
-
el
-throw.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam took off his shirt.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam
Madina-li-j
mižer-k-eːrcː-ar
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
dream-
down
-stand_up.
ipfv
-
prs
.
hab
‘Madina dreams about Islam.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam
Madina-l
b-urs-ib-il-li-j
razij-w-ih-ub
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
erg
n
-say.
pfv
-
aor
-
nmlz
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
joy-
m
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam agreed with what Madina said.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_ILL.COM
X: ABS
Y: ILL.COM
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-cːilli
he-jč-ib=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
com
up
-(
m
)quarrel.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam had a quarrel with Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
hejž
baʁdaʁ
ca
dollar-ri-j
ca-b
this(
abs
)
cup(
abs
)
one
dollar-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
cop
-
n
‘This cup costs one dollar.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
ERG_SUPLAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il
ʕaˤħliq'aˤn-ni-j
tupang
ix-ub
pn
-
erg
bird-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
gun
throw.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam shot at the bird.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
čakar
b-iː-ka-b-ix-ub
pn
-
erg
sugar(
abs
)
n
-
thither
-
down
-
n
-throw.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam poured the sugar.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
umx-ni
d-it-aˤq-aˤq-ib
pn
-
erg
key-
pl
(
abs
)
npl
-lose-
lv
.
pfv
-
caus
-
aor
‘Islam lost his keys.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUB
X: ABS
Y: SUB
Locus: Y
paq'a
hin-ni-gu
gu-b-erqː-ib
log(
abs
)
water-
obl
-
sub
under
-
n
-carry.
pfv
-
aor
‘The log sank in the water.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
Nadir
ke-jx-ub
pn
-
erg
pn
(
abs
)
on
-(
m
)throw.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam killed Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_SUPLAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il
Nadir-ri-j
b-aˤq-ib
pn
-
erg
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
n
-hit.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam hit Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_SUPLAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il
Madina-li-j
mesa
b-iːčː-ib
pn
-
erg
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
kiss(
abs
)
n
-give.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam kissed Madina.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
tamaša-la
žuz
b-elč'-un
pn
-
erg
interest-
gen
book(
abs
)
n
-read.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam read an interesting book.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
t'upː
hak'-b-aˤrq'-ib
pn
-
erg
finger(
abs
)
move-
n
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam moved his finger.’
Valency pattern:
ERG_GEN
X: ERG
Y: GEN
Locus: Y
Islam-il
Nadir-ra
ħurmat
b-irq'-u
pn
-
erg
pn
-
gen
respect(
abs
)
n
-do.
ipfv
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam respects Nadir.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-li-j
d-aˤš-un
t'alħaˤna
a-d-ičː-aq-u
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
npl
-make_dirty.
pfv
-
aor
(
ptcp
)
dishes(
abs
)
neg
-
npl
-love.
ipfv
-
caus
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam dislikes dirty dishes.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
cin-na
durħuˤ-li-j
razi-li
ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
self-
gen
son-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
joy-
adv
cop
-
m
‘Islam is satisfied with his son.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate.
Valency pattern:
ERG_SUPLAT
X: ERG
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam-il
Madina-li-j
dikːa-d-išː-ib=ca-d
pn
-
erg
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
love-
npl
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
npl
‘Islam fell in love with Madina.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Madina-li-j
či-w-iχː-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
on
-
m
-believe.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam trusts Madina.’
Valency pattern:
GEN_SUPLAT
X: GEN
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: XY
Islam-la
cin-na
waba-j
urk'ec'i-či-d-ulq-a=ca-d
pn
-
gen
self-
gen
mother-
super
(
lat
)
pity-
on
-
npl
-
lv
.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
npl
‘Islam sympathises with his mother.’
Note: The NP in the genitive displays some properties of a clause-level dependent.
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam
Nadir-ri-j
ʕaˤsi-li
ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
angry-
adv
cop
-
m
‘Islam is discontent with Nadir.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-j
q'uc'-ih-ub=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
anger-(
m
)
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is angry with Nadir.’
Note: Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
hel
žaˤqːrum-li-j
tamaša-w-ih-ub
pn
(
abs
)
this
gift-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
surprise-
m
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam was surprised at this gift.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
čaˤj
d-ičː-aq-u
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
tea(
abs
)
npl
-want.
ipfv
-
caus
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam loves tea.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_ERG
X: ABS
Y: ERG
Locus: Y
Islam
d-uc'ar
čaˤj-il
ħaˤjran-w-irq'-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
npl
-hot
tea-
erg
fascination-
m
-
lv
.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam enjoys hot tea.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
sːakːa
telepun
b-ikːʷ-il=ca-b
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
new
telephone(
abs
)
n
-want.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
n
‘Islam wants a new mobile phone.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-j
ʕaˤsi-li=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
angry-
adv
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam holds a grudge against Nadir.’
Note: Non-verbal predicate. Non-trivial citation form.
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
Nadir-ri-j
q'uc'-ih-ub
pn
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
offence-(
m
)
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam took offence at Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
TR
X: ERG
Y: ABS
Locus: TR
Islam-il
Madina
c'aˤq'-il
pašman-r-ih-aq-ub
pn
-
erg
pn
(
abs
)
very-
adv
disappointment-
f
-
lv
.
pfv
-
caus
-
aor
‘Islam greatly upset Madina.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
hel
šahar-ri-j
tamaša-w-ih-ub
pn
(
abs
)
this
town-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
surprise-
m
-
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam was impressed by this town.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam-li-j
Nadir
či-w-ag-uj
e-jčː-aq-u
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
pn
(
abs
)
on
-
m
-see.
pfv
-
subj
.3
neg
-(
m
)want.
ipfv
-
caus
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam hates Nadir.’
Note: Not included in the database because this translation is semantically inaccurate.
Valency pattern:
ABS_bahandan
X: ABS
Y: bahandan
Locus: Y
Islam
cin-na
durħuˤ
bahandan
pašman-ih-ub
pn
(
abs
)
self-
gen
son(
abs
)
because_of
disappointment-(
m
)
lv
.
pfv
-
aor
‘Islam got upset with his son.’
Valency pattern:
ABS_SUPLAT
X: ABS
Y: SUPLAT
Locus: Y
Islam
cin-na
rirsːi-li-j
q'uc'-či-w-iːr-a=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
self-
gen
daughter-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
anger-
on
-
m
-
lv
.
ipfv
-
prs
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is getting irritated with his daughter.’
Valency pattern:
SUPLAT_ABS
X: SUPLAT
Y: ABS
Locus: X
Islam-li-j
Nadir
ʕaˤħ-k-eːrcː-ar
pn
-
obl
-
super
(
lat
)
pn
(
abs
)
good-
down
-(
m
)
lv
.
ipfv
-
prs
.
hab
‘Islam is fond of Nadir.’
Valency pattern:
NA
X: *
Y: *
Locus: *
Islam
ca-w
ʁuk-il
urucː-ik'ʷ-il=ca-w
pn
(
abs
)
self-
m
(
abs
)
short-
adv
shyness-(
m
)
lv
.
ipfv
-
cvb
=
cop
-
m
‘Islam is embarrased by the fact that he is short.’
Note: Not included in the database because Y is expressed in a dependent clause.